googleSearch.ipynb

{
 "cells": [
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 1,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import requests, re\n",
    "\n",
    "from bs4 import BeautifulSoup\n",
    "from googlesearch import search\n",
    "from GoogleNews import GoogleNews\n",
    "from googletrans import Translator\n",
    "\n",
    "from joblib import Parallel, delayed\n",
    "from tqdm import tqdm\n",
    "\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 2,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "\n",
    "def clean_spaces_text(text):\n",
    "    # Replace multiple spaces, tabs, and newline characters with a single space\n",
    "    cleaned_text = re.sub(r'\\s+', ' ', text)\n",
    "    return cleaned_text.strip()  # Remove leading and trailing spaces\n",
    "\n",
    "def search_google(query, number_of_results):\n",
    "    urls = []\n",
    "    for url in search(query, num_results=number_of_results):\n",
    "        urls.append(url)\n",
    "    return urls\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "def fetch_articles(url_to_search): # FETCH THE CONTENT FROM THE WEBPAGE\n",
    "    try:\n",
    "        headers={'User-Agent': 'Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 10.0; Win64; x64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/102.0.0.0 Safari/537.36'}\n",
    "\n",
    "        response = requests.get(url_to_search, headers=headers, timeout=10)\n",
    "        if response.status_code == 200:\n",
    "            soup = BeautifulSoup(response.content, 'html.parser')\n",
    "            # Extract text from webpage\n",
    "            text_content = ' '.join([p.text for p in soup.find_all('p')])\n",
    "            return text_content\n",
    "        else:\n",
    "            print(\"Failed to fetch webpage:\", response.status_code)\n",
    "            return None\n",
    "    except Exception as e:\n",
    "        print(\"An error occurred:\", str(e))\n",
    "        return None\n",
    "    \n",
    "    \n",
    "def search_google_news(query,                   # QUERY / KEYWORDS TO SEARCH\n",
    "                       number_of_results = 5,   # NUMBER OF ARTICLES / NEWS TO FETCH\n",
    "                       period = \"7d\"):          # PAST DAYS\n",
    "    news_urls = []\n",
    "    googlenews = GoogleNews()\n",
    "    \n",
    "    # FILTERS AND PARAMETERS\n",
    "    googlenews.set_lang(\"en\")\n",
    "    googlenews.set_period(period)\n",
    "    googlenews.set_encode(\"utf-8\")\n",
    "\n",
    "    googlenews.search(query)\n",
    "    results = googlenews.results()\n",
    "    print(results)\n",
    "    for i in range(min(len(results), number_of_results)):\n",
    "        news_urls.append(results[i]['link'])\n",
    "    googlenews.clear()\n",
    "    return news_urls\n",
    "\n",
    "def contains_hindi(text): # CHECK IF THE TEXT CONTAINS HINDI WORDS/CHARACTERS\n",
    "    hindi_pattern = re.compile(r'[\\u0900-\\u097F]+')\n",
    "    if hindi_pattern.search(text):\n",
    "        print(\"contains hindi !\")\n",
    "        return True\n",
    "    return False\n",
    "\n",
    "def clean_links(link):\n",
    "    link = link.split(\"&ved\")[0] # IDK WHAT THIS \"&ved\" IS ... IT GOT ATTATCHED AUTOMATICALLY... DUE TO WHICH IT WAS GIVING ERROR 404 \n",
    "    return link\n",
    "\n",
    "def translate_hindi_to_english(searched_data_dict):\n",
    "    translator = Translator()\n",
    "    for key, value in searched_data_dict.items():\n",
    "        if contains_hindi(value):\n",
    "            print(f\"{key} - Contains Hindi\")\n",
    "            try:\n",
    "                translated_text = translator.translate(value, dest=\"en\")\n",
    "                searched_data_dict[key] = translated_text.text\n",
    "            except Exception as e:\n",
    "                print(\"Error translating. Error:\", e)\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 3,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "query = \"Sun Earth\"\n",
    "number_of_results = 5\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 4,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "URL: https://science.nasa.gov/sun/\n",
      "Text content: The Sun is the star at the heart of our solar system. Its gravity holds the solar system together, keeping everything – from the biggest planets to the smallest bits of debris – in its orbit. The Sun's gravity holds the solar system together, keeping everything – from the biggest planets to the smallest particles of debris – in its orbit. The connection and interactions between the Sun and Earth drive the seasons, ocean currents, weather, climate, radiation belts and auroras. Though it is special to us, there are billions of stars like our Sun scattered across the Milky Way galaxy. The Sun has many names in many cultures. The Latin word for Sun is “sol,” which is the main adjective for all things Sun-related: solar. The Sun has inspired us since ancient times. It’s central to mythology and religion in cultures around the world, including the ancient Egyptians, the Aztecs of Mexico, Native American tribes of North and South America, the Chinese, and many others. Countless musicians have written songs about the Sun. The Beatles had a hit in 1969 with “Here Comes the Sun.” Other popular songs that reference the Sun include: “Walkin’ on the Sun” by Smashmouth; “Ain’t No Sunshine” by Bill Withers; “Walking on Sunshine” by Katrina and the Waves; “Pocketful of Sunshine” by Natasha Bedingfield; and “Let the Sunshine In” by the Fifth Dimension. If you're Superman or a fellow Kryptonian of comic book fame, your powers are heightened by the yellow glow of our Sun. There are several science fiction films featuring the Sun in the storyline. Everything you need to know about viewing the 2023 Annular Solar Eclipse and the 2024 Total Solar Eclipse. It is not safe to look directly at the Sun without specialized eye protection for solar viewing. Scientists, engineers, and educators who are passionate about making heliophysics accessible to everyone. Multiple Spacecraft Tell the Story of One Giant Solar Storm Solar Secrets Unveiled: Planetarium Program Showcases Parker Solar Probe Discoveries NASA Missions Find ‘Jetlets’ Could Power the Solar Wind NASA Enters the Solar Atmosphere for the First Time, Bringing New Discoveries NASA Scientist Kelly Korreck on the Journey to the Sun, and What It Takes to Get There Facts and activities for K-4 explorers. Images and videos of scientific interest. Mercury Venus Facts About Earth Mars NASA explores the unknown in air and space, innovates for the benefit of humanity, and inspires the world through discovery.\n",
      "\n",
      "URL: https://www.space.com/58-the-sun-formation-facts-and-characteristics.html\n",
      "Text content: When you purchase through links on our site, we may earn an affiliate commission. Here’s how it works. Earth's sun is revealing its secrets thanks to a fleet of missions designed to study it. The sun lies at the heart of the solar system, where it is by far the largest object. It holds 99.8% of the solar system's mass and is roughly 109 times the diameter of the Earth — about one million Earths could fit inside the sun. The surface of the sun is about 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit (5,500 degrees Celsius) hot, while temperatures in the core reach more than 27 million F (15 million C), driven by nuclear reactions. One would need to explode 100 billion tons of dynamite every second to match the energy produced by the sun, according to NASA. The sun is one of more than 100 billion stars in the Milky Way. It orbits some 25,000 light-years from the galactic core, completing a revolution once every 250 million years or so. The sun is relatively young, part of a generation of stars known as Population I, which are relatively rich in elements heavier than helium. An older generation of stars is called Population II, and an earlier generation of Population III may have existed, although no members of this generation are known yet. Related: How hot is the sun? The sun was born about 4.6 billion years ago. Many scientists think the sun and the rest of the solar system formed from a giant, rotating cloud of gas and dust known as the solar nebula. As the nebula collapsed because of its gravity, it spun faster and flattened into a disk. Most of the material was pulled toward the center to form the sun. Related: How was the sun formed? The sun has enough nuclear fuel to stay much as it is now for another 5 billion years. After that, it will swell to become a red giant. Eventually, it will shed its outer layers, and the remaining core will collapse to become a white dwarf. Slowly, the white dwarf will fade, and will enter its final phase as a dim, cool theoretical object sometimes known as a black dwarf. Related: When will the sun die? The sun and the atmosphere of the sun are divided into several zones and layers. The solar interior, from the inside out, is made up of the core, radiative zone and the convective zone. The solar atmosphere above that consists of the photosphere, chromosphere, a transition region and the corona. Beyond that is the solar wind, an outflow of gas from the corona. The core extends from the sun's center to about a quarter of the way to its surface. Although it only makes up roughly 2% of the sun's volume, it is almost 15 times the density of lead and holds nearly half of the sun's mass. Next is the radiative zone, which extends from the core to 70% of the way to the sun's surface, making up 32 % of the sun's volume and 48% of its mass. Light from the core gets scattered in this zone, so that a single photon often may take a million years to pass through. The convection zone reaches up to the sun's surface, and makes up 66% of the sun's volume but only a little more than 2% of its mass. Roiling \"convection cells\" of gas dominate this zone. Two main kinds of solar convection cells exist — granulation cells about 600 miles (1,000 kilometers) wide and supergranulation cells about 20,000 miles (30,000 km) in diameter. The photosphere is the lowest layer of the sun's atmosphere, and emits the light we see. It is about 300 miles (500 km) thick, although most of the light comes from its lowest third. Temperatures in the photosphere range from 11,000 F (6,125 C) at the bottom to 7,460 F (4,125 C) at the top. Next up is the chromosphere, which is hotter, up to 35,500 F (19,725 C), and is apparently made up entirely of spiky structures known as spicules typically some 600 miles (1,000 km) across and up to 6,000 miles (10,000 km) high. After that is the transition region a few hundred to a few thousand miles thick, which is heated by the corona above it and sheds most of its light as ultraviolet rays. At the top is the super-hot corona, which is made of structures such as loops and streams of ionized gas. The corona generally ranges from 900,000 F (500,000 C) to 10.8 million F (6 million C) and can even reach tens of millions of degrees when a solar flare occurs. Matter from the corona is blown off as the solar wind. Related: Space weather: Sunspots, solar flares & coronal mass ejections The sun's magnetic field is typically only about twice as strong as Earth's magnetic field. However, it becomes highly concentrated in small areas, reaching up to 3,000 times stronger than usual. These kinks and twists in the magnetic field develop because the sun spins more rapidly at the equator than at higher latitudes and because the inner parts of the sun rotate more quickly than the surface. Related: Huge magnetic 'ropes' drive powerful sun explosions These distortions create features ranging from sunspots to spectacular eruptions known as flares and coronal mass ejections. Flares are the most violent eruptions in the solar system, while coronal mass ejections are less violent but involve extraordinary amounts of matter — a single ejection can spout roughly 20 billion tons (18 billion metric tons) of matter into space. Just like most other stars, the sun is made up mostly of hydrogen, followed by helium. Nearly all the remaining matter consists of seven other elements — oxygen, carbon, neon, nitrogen, magnesium, iron and silicon. For every 1 million atoms of hydrogen in the sun, there are 98,000 of helium, 850 of oxygen, 360 of carbon, 120 of neon, 110 of nitrogen, 40 of magnesium, 35 of iron and 35 of silicon. Still, hydrogen is the lightest of all elements, so it only accounts for roughly 72% of the sun's mass, while helium makes up about 26%. Related: What is the sun made of? Sunspots are relatively cool, dark features on the sun's surface that are often roughly circular. They emerge where dense bundles of magnetic field lines from the sun's interior break through the surface. The number of sunspots varies as solar magnetic activity does — the change in this number, from a minimum of none to a maximum of roughly 250 sunspots or clusters of sunspots and then back to a minimum, is known as the solar cycle, and averages about 11 years long. At the end of a cycle, the magnetic field rapidly reverses its polarity. Related: Largest sunspot in 24 years wows scientists, but also mystifies Ancient cultures often modified natural rock formations or built stone monuments to mark the motions of the sun and moon, charting the seasons, creating calendars and monitoring eclipses. Many believed the sun revolved around the Earth, with the ancient Greek scholar Ptolemy formalizing this \"geocentric\" model in 150 B.C. Then, in 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus described a heliocentric (sun-centered) model of the solar system, and in 1610, Galileo Galilei's discovery of Jupiter's moons confirmed that not all heavenly bodies circled Earth. To learn more about how the sun and other stars work, after early observations using rockets, scientists began studying the sun from Earth orbit. NASA launched a series of eight orbiting observatories known as the Orbiting Solar Observatory between 1962 and 1971. Seven of them were successful, and analyzed the sun at ultraviolet and X-ray wavelengths and photographed the super-hot corona, among other achievements. In 1990, NASA and the European Space Agency launched the Ulysses probe to make the first observations of its polar regions. In 2004, NASA's Genesis spacecraft returned samples of the solar wind to Earth for study. In 2007, NASA's double-spacecraft Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) mission returned the first three-dimensional images of the sun. NASA lost contact with STEREO-B in 2014, which remained out of contact except for a brief period in 2016. STEREO-A remains fully functional. The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), which last year celebrated 25 years in space, has been one of the most important solar missions to date. Designed to study the solar wind, as well as the sun's outer layers and interior structure, it has imaged the structure of sunspots below the surface, measured the acceleration of the solar wind, discovered coronal waves and solar tornadoes, found more than 1,000 comets, and revolutionized our ability to forecast space weather. The Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), launched in 2010, has returned never-before-seen details of material streaming outward and away from sunspots, as well as extreme close-ups of activity on the sun's surface and the first high-resolution measurements of solar flares in a broad range of extreme ultraviolet wavelengths. The newest addition to the sun-observing fleet are NASA's Parker Solar Probe, launched in 2018, and ESA/NASA Solar Orbiter, launched in 2020. Both of these spacecraft orbit the sun closer than any spacecraft before, taking complementary measurements of the environment in the vicinity of the star. During its close passes, the Parker Solar Probe dives into the sun's outer atmosphere, the corona, having to withstand temperatures hotter than one million degrees Fahrenheit. At its nearest, the Parker Solar Probe will fly merely 4 million miles (6.5 million km) to the sun's surface (the distance between the sun and Earth is 93 million miles (150 million km)). The measurements it makes are helping scientists learn more about how energy flows through the sun, the structure of the solar wind, and how energetic particles are accelerated and transported. Related: NASA Parker Solar Probe nails close flyby of sun as its space weather cycle ramps up While Solar Orbiter doesn't fly as close as the Parker Solar Probe, it is equipped with high-tech cameras and telescopes that take images of the sun's surface from the closest distance ever. It was not technically possible for the Parker Solar Probe to carry a camera that would look directly at the sun's surface. At its closest, Solar Orbiter will pass at about 26 million miles (43 million km) away from the star — about 25% closer than Mercury. During its first perihelion, the point in its elliptical orbit closest to the sun, the spacecraft approached the sun to about half the distance from earth. The images acquired during the first perihelion, released in June last year, were the closest images of the sun ever taken and revealed previously unseen features on the star's surface — miniature flares dubbed the campfires. After Solar Orbiter completes a few close passes, mission controllers will start elevating its orbit out of the ecliptic plane in which planets orbit, to enable the spacecraft's cameras to take the first ever close-up images of the sun's poles. Mapping the activity in the polar regions will help scientists better understand the sun's magnetic field, which drives the 11-year solar cycle. This article was updated on June 9, 2021 by Space.com senior writer Tereza Pultarova. Join our Space Forums to keep talking space on the latest missions, night sky and more! And if you have a news tip, correction or comment, let us know at: community@space.com. Breaking space news, the latest updates on rocket launches, skywatching events and more! Charles Q. Choi is a contributing writer for Space.com and Live Science. He covers all things human origins and astronomy as well as physics, animals and general science topics. Charles has a Master of Arts degree from the University of Missouri-Columbia, School of Journalism and a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of South Florida. Charles has visited every continent on Earth, drinking rancid yak butter tea in Lhasa, snorkeling with sea lions in the Galapagos and even climbing an iceberg in Antarctica. Visit him at http://www.sciwriter.us Early Star Wars Day Lego deal: $130 off UCS Razor Crest Pre-Star Wars Day Lego deal: 20% off the Emperor's Throne Room Space threats, NORAD upgrade may spur new private defense spending in Canada Space is part of Future US Inc, an international media group and leading digital publisher. Visit our corporate site. © Future US, Inc. Full 7th Floor, 130 West 42nd Street, New York, NY 10036.\n",
      "\n",
      "URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun\n",
      "Text content: The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a massive, hot ball of plasma, inflated and heated by energy produced by nuclear fusion reactions at its core. Part of this energy is emitted from its surface as visible light, ultraviolet, and infrared radiation, providing most of the energy for life on Earth. The Sun has been an object of veneration in many cultures. It has been a central subject for astronomical research since antiquity. The Sun orbits the Galactic Center at a distance of 24,000 to 28,000 light-years.[9] From Earth, it is on average 1 AU (1.496×108 km) or about 8 light-minutes away. Its diameter is about 1,391,400 km (864,600 mi; 4.64 LS), 109 times that of Earth. Its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth, making up about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.[18] Roughly three-quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen (~73%); the rest is mostly helium (~25%), with much smaller quantities of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron.[19] The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star (G2V), informally called a yellow dwarf, though its light is actually white. It formed approximately 4.6 billion[a][14][20] years ago from the gravitational collapse of matter within a region of a large molecular cloud. Most of this matter gathered in the center, whereas the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that became the Solar System. The central mass became so hot and dense that it eventually initiated nuclear fusion in its core. It is thought that almost all stars form by this process. Every second, the Sun's core fuses about 600 billion kilograms (kg) of hydrogen into helium and converts 4 billion kg of matter into energy. Far in the future, when hydrogen fusion in the Sun's core diminishes to the point where the Sun is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium, its core will undergo a marked increase in density and temperature which will cause its outer layers to expand, eventually transforming the Sun into a red giant. This process will make the Sun large enough to render Earth uninhabitable approximately five billion years from the present. Subsequently, the Sun will shed its outer layers and become a dense type of cooling star (a white dwarf), and no longer produce energy by fusion, but it will still glow and give off heat from its previous fusion for trillions of years. After that it is theorized to become a super dense black dwarf, giving off no more energy. The English word sun developed from Old English sunne. Cognates appear in other Germanic languages, including West Frisian sinne, Dutch zon, Low German Sünn, Standard German Sonne, Bavarian Sunna, Old Norse sunna, and Gothic sunnō. All these words stem from Proto-Germanic *sunnōn.[21][22] This is ultimately related to the word for sun in other branches of the Indo-European language family, though in most cases a nominative stem with an l is found, rather than the genitive stem in n, as for example in Latin sōl, ancient Greek ἥλιος (hēlios), Welsh haul and Czech slunce, as well as (with *l > r) Sanskrit स्वर (svár) and Persian خور (xvar). Indeed, the l-stem survived in Proto-Germanic as well, as *sōwelan, which gave rise to Gothic sauil (alongside sunnō) and Old Norse prosaic sól (alongside poetic sunna), and through it the words for sun in the modern Scandinavian languages: Swedish and Danish sol, Icelandic sól, etc.[22] The principal adjectives for the Sun in English are sunny for sunlight and, in technical contexts, solar (/ˈsoʊlər/),[3] from Latin sol[23]—the latter found in terms such as solar day, solar eclipse and Solar System. From the Greek helios comes the rare adjective heliac (/ˈhiːliæk/).[24] In English, the Greek and Latin words occur in poetry as personifications of the Sun, Helios (/ˈhiːliəs/) and Sol (/ˈsɒl/),[2][1] while in science fiction Sol may be used to distinguish the Sun from other stars. The term sol with a lower-case s is used by planetary astronomers for the duration of a solar day on another planet such as Mars.[25] The English weekday name Sunday stems from Old English Sunnandæg \"sun's day\", a Germanic interpretation of the Latin phrase diēs sōlis, itself a translation of the ancient Greek ἡμέρα ἡλίου (hēmera hēliou) 'day of the sun'.[26] The astronomical symbol for the Sun is a circle with a center dot, . It is used for such units as M☉ (Solar mass), R☉ (Solar radius) and L☉ (Solar luminosity). The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star that makes up about 99.86% of the mass of the Solar System. The Sun has an absolute magnitude of +4.83, estimated to be brighter than about 85% of the stars in the Milky Way, most of which are red dwarfs.[27][28] The Sun is a Population I, or heavy-element-rich,[b] star.[29] Its formation may have been triggered by shockwaves from one or more nearby supernovae.[30] This is suggested by a high abundance of heavy elements in the Solar System, such as gold and uranium, relative to the abundances of these elements in so-called Population II, heavy-element-poor, stars. The heavy elements could most plausibly have been produced by endothermic nuclear reactions during a supernova, or by transmutation through neutron absorption within a massive second-generation star.[29] The Sun is by far the brightest object in the Earth's sky, with an apparent magnitude of −26.74.[31][32] This is about 13 billion times brighter than the next brightest star, Sirius, which has an apparent magnitude of −1.46. One astronomical unit (about 150 million kilometres; 93 million miles) is defined as the mean distance between the centres of the Sun and the Earth. The instantaneous distance varies by about ± 2.5 million km or 1.55 million miles as Earth moves from perihelion on ~ January 3rd to aphelion on ~ July 4th.[33] At its average distance, light travels from the Sun's horizon to Earth's horizon in about 8 minutes and 20 seconds,[34] while light from the closest points of the Sun and Earth takes about two seconds less. The energy of this sunlight supports almost all life[c] on Earth by photosynthesis,[35] and drives Earth's climate and weather. The Sun does not have a definite boundary, but its density decreases exponentially with increasing height above the photosphere.[36] For the purpose of measurement, the Sun's radius is considered to be the distance from its center to the edge of the photosphere, the apparent visible surface of the Sun.[37] By this measure, the Sun is a near-perfect sphere with an oblateness estimated at 9 millionths,[38][39][40] which means that its polar diameter differs from its equatorial diameter by only 10 kilometers (6.2 mi).[41] The tidal effect of the planets is weak and does not significantly affect the shape of the Sun.[42] The Sun rotates faster at its equator than at its poles. This differential rotation is caused by convective motion due to heat transport and the Coriolis force due to the Sun's rotation. In a frame of reference defined by the stars, the rotational period is approximately 25.6 days at the equator and 33.5 days at the poles. Viewed from Earth as it orbits the Sun, the apparent rotational period of the Sun at its equator is about 28 days.[43] Viewed from a vantage point above its north pole, the Sun rotates counterclockwise around its axis of spin.[d][44] The Sun consists mainly of the elements hydrogen and helium. At this time in the Sun's life, they account for 74.9% and 23.8%, respectively, of the mass of the Sun in the photosphere.[45] All heavier elements, called metals in astronomy, account for less than 2% of the mass, with oxygen (roughly 1% of the Sun's mass), carbon (0.3%), neon (0.2%), and iron (0.2%) being the most abundant.[46] In solar research it is more common to express the abundance of each element in dex, which is a scaled logarithmic unit. A ( e ) = 12 + log 10 ⁡ ( n e n H ) {\\displaystyle \\mathrm {A} (e)=12+\\log _{10}({\\frac {ne}{n\\mathrm {H} }})} ; 'e' is the element in question and nH is number of hydrogen atoms. By definition hydrogen has an abundance of 12, the helium abundance varies between about 10.3 and 10.5 depending on the phase of the solar cycle;[47] carbon is 8.47, neon is 8.29, oxygen is 7.69[48] and iron is 7.62. The Sun's original chemical composition was inherited from the interstellar medium out of which it formed. Originally it would have been about 71.1% hydrogen, 27.4% helium, and 1.5% heavier elements.[45] The hydrogen and most of the helium in the Sun would have been produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis in the first 20 minutes of the universe, and the heavier elements were produced by previous generations of stars before the Sun was formed, and spread into the interstellar medium during the final stages of stellar life and by events such as supernovae.[49] Since the Sun formed, the main fusion process has involved fusing hydrogen into helium. Over the past 4.6 billion years, the amount of helium and its location within the Sun has gradually changed. Within the core, the proportion of helium has increased from about 24% to about 60% due to fusion, and some of the helium and heavy elements have settled from the photosphere toward the center of the Sun because of gravity. The proportions of heavier elements are unchanged. Heat is transferred outward from the Sun's core by radiation rather than by convection (see Radiative zone below), so the fusion products are not lifted outward by heat; they remain in the core[50] and gradually an inner core of helium has begun to form that cannot be fused because presently the Sun's core is not hot or dense enough to fuse helium. In the current photosphere, the helium fraction is reduced, and the metallicity is only 84% of what it was in the protostellar phase (before nuclear fusion in the core started). In the future, helium will continue to accumulate in the core, and in about 5 billion years this gradual build-up will eventually cause the Sun to exit the main sequence and become a red giant.[51] The chemical composition of the photosphere is normally considered representative of the composition of the primordial Solar System.[52] The solar heavy-element abundances described above are typically measured both using spectroscopy of the Sun's photosphere and by measuring abundances in meteorites that have never been heated to melting temperatures. These meteorites are thought to retain the composition of the protostellar Sun and are thus not affected by the settling of heavy elements. The two methods generally agree well.[19] The core of the Sun extends from the center to about 20–25% of the solar radius.[53] It has a density of up to 150 g/cm3[54][55] (about 150 times the density of water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million kelvin (K).[55] By contrast, the Sun's surface temperature is about 5800 K. Recent analysis of SOHO mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the radiative zone above.[53] Through most of the Sun's life, energy has been produced by nuclear fusion in the core region through the proton–proton chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium.[56] Currently, only 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from another sequence of fusion reactions called the CNO cycle, though this proportion is expected to increase as the Sun becomes older and more luminous.[57][58] The core is the only region of the Sun that produces an appreciable amount of thermal energy through fusion; 99% of the power is generated within 24% of the Sun's radius, and by 30% of the radius, fusion has stopped nearly entirely. The rest of the Sun is heated by this energy as it is transferred outward through many successive layers, finally to the solar photosphere where it escapes into space through radiation (photons) or advection (massive particles).[59][60] The proton–proton chain occurs around 9.2×1037 times each second in the core, converting about 3.7×1038 protons into alpha particles (helium nuclei) every second (out of a total of ~8.9×1056 free protons in the Sun), or about 6.2×1011 kg/s. However, each proton (on average) takes around 9 billion years to fuse with another using the PP chain.[59] Fusing four free protons (hydrogen nuclei) into a single alpha particle (helium nucleus) releases around 0.7% of the fused mass as energy,[61] so the Sun releases energy at the mass–energy conversion rate of 4.26 billion kg/s (which requires 600 billion kg of hydrogen[62]), for 384.6 yottawatts (3.846×1026 W),[5] or 9.192×1010 megatons of TNT per second. The large power output of the Sun is mainly due to the huge size and density of its core (compared to Earth and objects on Earth), with only a fairly small amount of power being generated per cubic metre. Theoretical models of the Sun's interior indicate a maximum power density, or energy production, of approximately 276.5 watts per cubic metre at the center of the core,[63] which, according to Karl Kruszelnicki, is about the same power density inside a compost pile.[64] The fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and expand slightly against the weight of the outer layers, reducing the density and hence the fusion rate and correcting the perturbation; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the density and increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present rate.[65][66] The radiative zone is the thickest layer of the Sun, at 0.45 solar radii. From the core out to about 0.7 solar radii, thermal radiation is the primary means of energy transfer.[67] The temperature drops from approximately 7 million to 2 million kelvins with increasing distance from the core.[55] This temperature gradient is less than the value of the adiabatic lapse rate and hence cannot drive convection, which explains why the transfer of energy through this zone is by radiation instead of thermal convection.[55] Ions of hydrogen and helium emit photons, which travel only a brief distance before being reabsorbed by other ions.[67] The density drops a hundredfold (from 20 000 kg/m3 to 200 kg/m3) between 0.25 solar radii and 0.7 radii, the top of the radiative zone.[67] The radiative zone and the convective zone are separated by a transition layer, the tachocline. This is a region where the sharp regime change between the uniform rotation of the radiative zone and the differential rotation of the convection zone results in a large shear between the two—a condition where successive horizontal layers slide past one another.[68] Presently, it is hypothesized (see Solar dynamo) that a magnetic dynamo within this layer generates the Sun's magnetic field.[55] The Sun's convection zone extends from 0.7 solar radii (500,000 km) to near the surface. In this layer, the solar plasma is not dense or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation. Instead, the density of the plasma is low enough to allow convective currents to develop and move the Sun's energy outward towards its surface. Material heated at the tachocline picks up heat and expands, thereby reducing its density and allowing it to rise. As a result, an orderly motion of the mass develops into thermal cells that carry most of the heat outward to the Sun's photosphere above. Once the material diffusively and radiatively cools just beneath the photospheric surface, its density increases, and it sinks to the base of the convection zone, where it again picks up heat from the top of the radiative zone and the convective cycle continues. At the photosphere, the temperature has dropped to 5,700 K (5,430 °C; 9,800 °F) (350-fold) and the density to only 0.2 g/m3 (about 1/10,000 the density of air at sea level, and 1 millionth that of the inner layer of the convective zone).[55] The thermal columns of the convection zone form an imprint on the surface of the Sun giving it a granular appearance called the solar granulation at the smallest scale and supergranulation at larger scales. Turbulent convection in this outer part of the solar interior sustains \"small-scale\" dynamo action over the near-surface volume of the Sun.[55] The Sun's thermal columns are Bénard cells and take the shape of roughly hexagonal prisms.[69] The visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is the layer below which the Sun becomes opaque to visible light.[70] Photons produced in this layer escape the Sun through the transparent solar atmosphere above it and become solar radiation, sunlight. The change in opacity is due to the decreasing amount of H− ions, which absorb visible light easily.[70] Conversely, the visible light we see is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H− ions.[71][72] The photosphere is tens to hundreds of kilometers thick, and is slightly less opaque than air on Earth. Because the upper part of the photosphere is cooler than the lower part, an image of the Sun appears brighter in the center than on the edge or limb of the solar disk, in a phenomenon known as limb darkening.[70] The spectrum of sunlight has approximately the spectrum of a black-body radiating at 5,777 K (5,504 °C; 9,939 °F), interspersed with atomic absorption lines from the tenuous layers above the photosphere. The photosphere has a particle density of ~1023 m−3 (about 0.37% of the particle number per volume of Earth's atmosphere at sea level). The photosphere is not fully ionized—the extent of ionization is about 3%, leaving almost all of the hydrogen in atomic form.[73] During early studies of the optical spectrum of the photosphere, some absorption lines were found that did not correspond to any chemical elements then known on Earth. In 1868, Norman Lockyer hypothesized that these absorption lines were caused by a new element that he dubbed helium, after the Greek Sun god Helios. Twenty-five years later, helium was isolated on Earth.[74] The Sun's atmosphere is composed of four parts: the photosphere (visible under normal conditions), the chromosphere, the transition region, the corona and the heliosphere. During a total solar eclipse, the photosphere is blocked, making the corona visible.[75] The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region extending to about 500 km above the photosphere, and has a temperature of about 4,100 K.[70] This part of the Sun is cool enough to allow for the existence of simple molecules such as carbon monoxide and water, which can be detected via their absorption spectra.[76] The chromosphere, transition region, and corona are much hotter than the surface of the Sun.[70] The reason is not well understood, but evidence suggests that Alfvén waves may have enough energy to heat the corona.[77] Above the temperature minimum layer is a layer about 2,000 km thick, dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines.[70] It is called the chromosphere from the Greek root chroma, meaning color, because the chromosphere is visible as a colored flash at the beginning and end of total solar eclipses.[67] The temperature of the chromosphere increases gradually with altitude, ranging up to around 20,000 K near the top.[70] In the upper part of the chromosphere helium becomes partially ionized.[78] Above the chromosphere, in a thin (about 200 km) transition region, the temperature rises rapidly from around 20,000 K in the upper chromosphere to coronal temperatures closer to 1,000,000 K.[79] The temperature increase is facilitated by the full ionization of helium in the transition region, which significantly reduces radiative cooling of the plasma.[78] The transition region does not occur at a well-defined altitude. Rather, it forms a kind of nimbus around chromospheric features such as spicules and filaments, and is in constant, chaotic motion.[67] The transition region is not easily visible from Earth's surface, but is readily observable from space by instruments sensitive to the extreme ultraviolet portion of the spectrum.[80] The corona is the next layer of the Sun. The low corona, near the surface of the Sun, has a particle density around 1015 m−3 to 1016 m−3.[78][e] The average temperature of the corona and solar wind is about 1,000,000–2,000,000 K; however, in the hottest regions it is 8,000,000–20,000,000 K.[79] Although no complete theory yet exists to account for the temperature of the corona, at least some of its heat is known to be from magnetic reconnection.[79][81] The corona is the extended atmosphere of the Sun, which has a volume much larger than the volume enclosed by the Sun's photosphere. A flow of plasma outward from the Sun into interplanetary space is the solar wind.[81] The heliosphere, the tenuous outermost atmosphere of the Sun, is filled with solar wind plasma. This outermost layer of the Sun is defined to begin at the distance where the flow of the solar wind becomes superalfvénic—that is, where the flow becomes faster than the speed of Alfvén waves,[82] at approximately 20 solar radii (0.1 AU). Turbulence and dynamic forces in the heliosphere cannot affect the shape of the solar corona within, because the information can only travel at the speed of Alfvén waves. The solar wind travels outward continuously through the heliosphere,[83][84] forming the solar magnetic field into a spiral shape,[81] until it impacts the heliopause more than 50 AU from the Sun. In December 2004, the Voyager 1 probe passed through a shock front that is thought to be part of the heliopause.[85] In late 2012, Voyager 1 recorded a marked increase in cosmic ray collisions and a sharp drop in lower energy particles from the solar wind, which suggested that the probe had passed through the heliopause and entered the interstellar medium,[86] and indeed did so on August 25, 2012, at approximately 122 astronomical units (18 Tm) from the Sun.[87] The heliosphere has a heliotail which stretches out behind it due to the Sun's movement.[88] On April 28, 2021, during its eighth flyby of the Sun, NASA's Parker Solar Probe encountered the specific magnetic and particle conditions at 18.8 solar radii that indicated that it penetrated the Alfvén surface, the boundary separating the corona from the solar wind defined as where the coronal plasma's Alfvén speed and the large-scale solar wind speed are equal.[89][90] The probe measured the solar wind plasma environment with its FIELDS and SWEAP instruments.[91] This event was described by NASA as \"touching the Sun\".[89] During the flyby, Parker Solar Probe passed into and out of the corona several times. This proved the predictions that the Alfvén critical surface is not shaped like a smooth ball, but has spikes and valleys that wrinkle its surface.[89] The Sun emits light across the visible spectrum, so its color is white, with a CIE color-space index near (0.3, 0.3), when viewed from space or when the Sun is high in the sky. The Solar radiance per wavelength peaks in the green portion of the spectrum when viewed from space.[92][93] When the Sun is very low in the sky, atmospheric scattering renders the Sun yellow, red, orange, or magenta, and in rare occasions even green or blue. Despite its typical whiteness (white sunrays, white ambient light, white illumination of the Moon, etc.), some cultures mentally picture the Sun as yellow and some even red; the reasons for this are cultural and exact ones are the subject of debate.[94] The Sun is a G2V star, with G2 indicating its surface temperature of approximately 5,778 K (5,505 °C; 9,941 °F), and V that it, like most stars, is a main-sequence star.[59][95] The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately 1,368 W/m2 (watts per square meter) at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (that is, at or near Earth's orbit).[96] Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuated by Earth's atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface (closer to 1,000 W/m2) in clear conditions when the Sun is near the zenith.[97] Sunlight at the top of Earth's atmosphere is composed (by total energy) of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light.[98] The atmosphere in particular filters out over 70% of solar ultraviolet, especially at the shorter wavelengths.[99] Solar ultraviolet radiation ionizes Earth's dayside upper atmosphere, creating the electrically conducting ionosphere.[100] Ultraviolet light from the Sun has antiseptic properties and can be used to sanitize tools and water. It also causes sunburn, and has other biological effects such as the production of vitamin D and sun tanning. It is also the main cause of skin cancer. Ultraviolet light is strongly attenuated by Earth's ozone layer, so that the amount of UV varies greatly with latitude and has been partially responsible for many biological adaptations, including variations in human skin color in different regions of the Earth.[101] High-energy gamma ray photons initially released with fusion reactions in the core are almost immediately absorbed by the solar plasma of the radiative zone, usually after traveling only a few millimeters. Re-emission happens in a random direction and usually at slightly lower energy. With this sequence of emissions and absorptions, it takes a long time for radiation to reach the Sun's surface. Estimates of the photon travel time range between 10,000 and 170,000 years.[102] In contrast, it takes only 2.3 seconds for neutrinos, which account for about 2% of the total energy production of the Sun, to reach the surface. Because energy transport in the Sun is a process that involves photons in thermodynamic equilibrium with matter, the time scale of energy transport in the Sun is longer, on the order of 30,000,000 years. This is the time it would take the Sun to return to a stable state if the rate of energy generation in its core were suddenly changed.[103] Neutrinos are also released by fusion reactions in the core, but, unlike photons, they rarely interact with matter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately. For many years, measurements of the number of neutrinos produced in the Sun were lower than theories predicted by a factor of 3. In 2001, the discovery of the effects of neutrino oscillation resolved the discrepancy: the Sun emits the number of neutrinos predicted by the theory, but neutrino detectors were missing 2⁄3 of them because the neutrinos had changed flavor by the time they were detected.[104] The Sun has a stellar magnetic field that varies across its surface. Its polar field is 1–2 gauss (0.0001–0.0002 T), whereas the field is typically 3,000 gauss (0.3 T) in features on the Sun called sunspots and 10–100 gauss (0.001–0.01 T) in solar prominences.[5] The magnetic field varies in time and location. The quasi-periodic 11-year solar cycle is the most prominent variation in which the number and size of sunspots waxes and wanes.[105][106][107] The solar magnetic field extends well beyond the Sun itself. The electrically conducting solar wind plasma carries the Sun's magnetic field into space, forming what is called the interplanetary magnetic field.[81] In an approximation known as ideal magnetohydrodynamics, plasma particles only move along magnetic field lines. As a result, the outward-flowing solar wind stretches the interplanetary magnetic field outward, forcing it into a roughly radial structure. For a simple dipolar solar magnetic field, with opposite hemispherical polarities on either side of the solar magnetic equator, a thin current sheet is formed in the solar wind.[81] At great distances, the rotation of the Sun twists the dipolar magnetic field and corresponding current sheet into an Archimedean spiral structure called the Parker spiral.[81] The interplanetary magnetic field is much stronger than the dipole component of the solar magnetic field. The Sun's dipole magnetic field of 50–400 μT (at the photosphere) reduces with the inverse-cube of the distance, leading to a predicted magnetic field of 0.1 nT at the distance of Earth. However, according to spacecraft observations the interplanetary field at Earth's location is around 5 nT, about a hundred times greater.[108] The difference is due to magnetic fields generated by electrical currents in the plasma surrounding the Sun. Sunspots are visible as dark patches on the Sun's photosphere and correspond to concentrations of magnetic field where convective transport of heat is inhibited from the solar interior to the surface. As a result, sunspots are slightly cooler than the surrounding photosphere, so they appear dark. At a typical solar minimum, few sunspots are visible, and occasionally none can be seen at all. Those that do appear are at high solar latitudes. As the solar cycle progresses toward its maximum, sunspots tend to form closer to the solar equator, a phenomenon known as Spörer's law. The largest sunspots can be tens of thousands of kilometers across.[109] An 11-year sunspot cycle is half of a 22-year Babcock–Leighton dynamo cycle, which corresponds to an oscillatory exchange of energy between toroidal and poloidal solar magnetic fields. At solar-cycle maximum, the external poloidal dipolar magnetic field is near its dynamo-cycle minimum strength; but an internal toroidal quadrupolar field, generated through differential rotation within the tachocline, is near its maximum strength. At this point in the dynamo cycle, buoyant upwelling within the convective zone forces emergence of the toroidal magnetic field through the photosphere, giving rise to pairs of sunspots, roughly aligned east–west and having footprints with opposite magnetic polarities. The magnetic polarity of sunspot pairs alternates every solar cycle, a phenomenon described by Hale's law.[110][111] During the solar cycle's declining phase, energy shifts from the internal toroidal magnetic field to the external poloidal field, and sunspots diminish in number and size. At solar-cycle minimum, the toroidal field is, correspondingly, at minimum strength, sunspots are relatively rare, and the poloidal field is at its maximum strength. With the rise of the next 11-year sunspot cycle, differential rotation shifts magnetic energy back from the poloidal to the toroidal field, but with a polarity that is opposite to the previous cycle. The process carries on continuously, and in an idealized, simplified scenario, each 11-year sunspot cycle corresponds to a change, then, in the overall polarity of the Sun's large-scale magnetic field.[112][113] The Sun's magnetic field leads to many effects that are collectively called solar activity. Solar flares and coronal-mass ejections tend to occur at sunspot groups. Slowly changing high-speed streams of solar wind are emitted from coronal holes at the photospheric surface. Both coronal-mass ejections and high-speed streams of solar wind carry plasma and the interplanetary magnetic field outward into the Solar System.[114] The effects of solar activity on Earth include auroras at moderate to high latitudes and the disruption of radio communications and electric power. Solar activity is thought to have played a large role in the formation and evolution of the Solar System. Long-term secular change in sunspot number is thought, by some scientists, to be correlated with long-term change in solar irradiance,[115] which, in turn, might influence Earth's long-term climate.[116] The solar cycle influences space weather conditions, including those surrounding Earth. For example, in the 17th century, the solar cycle appeared to have stopped entirely for several decades; few sunspots were observed during a period known as the Maunder minimum. This coincided in time with the era of the Little Ice Age, when Europe experienced unusually cold temperatures.[117] Earlier extended minima have been discovered through analysis of tree rings and appear to have coincided with lower-than-average global temperatures.[118] In December 2019, a new type of solar magnetic explosion was observed, known as forced magnetic reconnection. Previously, in a process called spontaneous magnetic reconnection, it was observed that the solar magnetic field lines diverge explosively and then converge again instantaneously. Forced Magnetic Reconnection was similar, but it was triggered by an explosion in the corona.[119] The Sun today is roughly halfway through the most stable part of its life. It has not changed dramatically in over four billion[a] years and will remain fairly stable for about five billion more. However, after hydrogen fusion in its core has stopped, the Sun will undergo dramatic changes, both internally and externally. It is more massive than 71 of 75 other stars within 5 pc,[120] or in the top ~5 percent. The Sun formed about 4.6 billion years ago from the collapse of part of a giant molecular cloud that consisted mostly of hydrogen and helium and that probably gave birth to many other stars.[121] This age is estimated using computer models of stellar evolution and through nucleocosmochronology.[14] The result is consistent with the radiometric date of the oldest Solar System material, at 4.567 billion years ago.[122][123] Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short-lived isotopes, such as iron-60, that form only in exploding, short-lived stars. This indicates that one or more supernovae must have occurred near the location where the Sun formed. A shock wave from a nearby supernova would have triggered the formation of the Sun by compressing the matter within the molecular cloud and causing certain regions to collapse under their own gravity.[124] As one fragment of the cloud collapsed it also began to rotate due to conservation of angular momentum and heat up with the increasing pressure.[125] Much of the mass became concentrated in the center, whereas the rest flattened out into a disk that would become the planets and other Solar System bodies.[126][127] Gravity and pressure within the core of the cloud generated a lot of heat as it accumulated more matter from the surrounding disk, eventually triggering nuclear fusion.[128] The stars HD 162826 and HD 186302 share similarities with the Sun and are thus hypothesized to be its stellar siblings, formed in the same molecular cloud.[129][130] The Sun is about halfway through its main-sequence stage, during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than four billion kilograms of matter are converted into energy within the Sun's core, producing neutrinos and solar radiation. At this rate, the Sun has so far converted around 100 times the mass of Earth into energy, about 0.03% of the total mass of the Sun. The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10 to 11 billion years as a main-sequence star before the red giant phase of the Sun.[131] At the 8 billion year mark, the Sun will be at its hottest point according to the ESA's Gaia space observatory mission in 2022.[132] The Sun is gradually becoming hotter in its core, hotter at the surface, larger in radius, and more luminous during its time on the main sequence: since the beginning of its main sequence life, it has expanded in radius by 15% and the surface has increased in temperature from 5,620 K (5,350 °C; 9,660 °F) to 5,772 K (5,499 °C; 9,930 °F), resulting in a 48% increase in luminosity from 0.677 solar luminosities to its present-day 1.0 solar luminosity. This occurs because the helium atoms in the core have a higher mean molecular weight than the hydrogen atoms that were fused, resulting in less thermal pressure. The core is therefore shrinking, allowing the outer layers of the Sun to move closer to the center, releasing gravitational potential energy. According to the virial theorem, half of this released gravitational energy goes into heating, which leads to a gradual increase in the rate at which fusion occurs and thus an increase in the luminosity. This process speeds up as the core gradually becomes denser.[133] At present, it is increasing in brightness by about 1% every 100 million years. It will take at least 1 billion years from now to deplete liquid water from the Earth from such increase.[134] After that, the Earth will cease to be able to support complex, multicellular life and the last remaining multicellular organisms on the planet will suffer a final, complete mass extinction.[135] The Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a supernova. Instead, when it runs out of hydrogen in the core in approximately 5 billion years, core hydrogen fusion will stop, and there will be nothing to prevent the core from contracting. The release of gravitational potential energy will cause the luminosity of the Sun to increase, ending the main sequence phase and leading the Sun to expand over the next billion years: first into a subgiant, and then into a red giant.[133][136][137] The heating due to gravitational contraction will also lead to expansion of the Sun and hydrogen fusion in a shell just outside the core, where unfused hydrogen remains, contributing to the increased luminosity, which will eventually reach more than 1,000 times its present luminosity.[133] When the Sun enters its red-giant branch (RGB) phase, it will engulf (and very likely destroying) Mercury and Venus. According to a 2008 paper, Earth's orbit will have initially expanded to at most 1.5 AU (220 million km; 140 million mi) due to the Sun's loss of mass. However, Earth's orbit will then start shrinking due to tidal forces (and, eventually, drag from the lower chromosphere) so that it is engulfed by the Sun during the tip of the red-giant branch phase 7.59 billion years from now, 3.8 and 1 million years after Mercury and Venus have respectively suffered the same fate.[137] By the time the Sun reaches the tip of the red-giant branch, it will be about 256 times larger than it is today, with a radius of 1.19 AU (178 million km; 111 million mi).[137][138] The Sun will spend around a billion years in the RGB and lose around a third of its mass.[137] After the red-giant branch, the Sun has approximately 120 million years of active life left, but much happens. First, the core (full of degenerate helium) ignites violently in the helium flash; it is estimated that 6% of the core—itself 40% of the Sun's mass—will be converted into carbon within a matter of minutes through the triple-alpha process.[139] The Sun then shrinks to around 10 times its current size and 50 times the luminosity, with a temperature a little lower than today. It will then have reached the red clump or horizontal branch, but a star of the Sun's metallicity does not evolve blueward along the horizontal branch. Instead, it just becomes moderately larger and more luminous over about 100 million years as it continues to react helium in the core.[137] When the helium is exhausted, the Sun will repeat the expansion it followed when the hydrogen in the core was exhausted. This time, however, it all happens faster, and the Sun becomes larger and more luminous. This is the asymptotic-giant-branch phase, and the Sun is alternately reacting hydrogen in a shell or helium in a deeper shell. After about 20 million years on the early asymptotic giant branch, the Sun becomes increasingly unstable, with rapid mass loss and thermal pulses that increase the size and luminosity for a few hundred years every 100,000 years or so. The thermal pulses become larger each time, with the later pulses pushing the luminosity to as much as 5,000 times the current level. Despite this, the Sun's maximum AGB radius will not be as large as its tip-RGB maximum: 179 R☉, or about 0.832 AU (124.5 million km; 77.3 million mi).[137][140] Models vary depending on the rate and timing of mass loss. Models that have higher mass loss on the red-giant branch produce smaller, less luminous stars at the tip of the asymptotic giant branch, perhaps only 2,000 times the luminosity and less than 200 times the radius.[137] For the Sun, four thermal pulses are predicted before it completely loses its outer envelope and starts to make a planetary nebula. By the end of that phase—lasting approximately 500,000 years—the Sun will only have about half of its current mass. The post-asymptotic-giant-branch evolution is even faster. The luminosity stays approximately constant as the temperature increases, with the ejected half of the Sun's mass becoming ionized into a planetary nebula as the exposed core reaches 30,000 K (29,700 °C; 53,500 °F), as if it is in a sort of blue loop. The final naked core, a white dwarf, will have a temperature of over 100,000 K (100,000 °C; 180,000 °F) and contain an estimated 54.05% of the Sun's present-day mass.[137] The planetary nebula will disperse in about 10,000 years, but the white dwarf will survive for trillions of years before fading to a hypothetical super-dense black dwarf.[141][142] As such, it would give off no more energy for an even longer time than it was a white dwarf.[143] The Sun has eight known planets orbiting it. This includes four terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), two gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), and two ice giants (Uranus and Neptune). The Solar System also has nine bodies generally considered as dwarf planets and some more candidates, an asteroid belt, numerous comets, and a large number of icy bodies which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune. Six of the planets and many smaller bodies also have their own natural satellites: in particular, the satellite systems of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus are in some ways like miniature versions of the Sun's system.[144] The Sun is moved by the gravitational pull of the planets. The center of the Sun is always within 2.2 solar radii of the barycenter. This motion of the Sun is mainly due to the four large planets. Each planet in the series Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, Uranus has about twice as much effect (moment of inertia) as the next. For some periods of several decades (when Neptune and Uranus are in opposition) the motion is rather regular, forming a trefoil pattern, whereas between these periods it appears more chaotic.[better source needed][145] After 179 years (nine times the synodic period of Jupiter and Saturn), the pattern more or less repeats, but rotates by about 24°.[146] The orbits of the inner planets, including those of the Earth, are similarly displaced by the same gravitational forces, so the movement of the Sun has little effect on the relative positions of the Earth and the Sun or on solar irradiance on the Earth as a function of time.[147] Within ten light-years of the Sun there are relatively few stars, the closest being the triple star system Alpha Centauri, which is about 4.4 light-years away and may be in the Local Bubble's G-Cloud.[149] Alpha Centauri A and B are a closely tied pair of Sun-like stars, whereas the closest star to Earth, the small red dwarf Proxima Centauri, orbits the pair at a distance of 0.2 light-year. In 2016, a potentially habitable exoplanet was found to be orbiting Proxima Centauri, called Proxima Centauri b, the closest confirmed exoplanet to the Sun.[150] The Solar System is surrounded by the Local Interstellar Cloud, although it is not clear if it is embedded in the Local Interstellar Cloud or if it lies just outside the cloud's edge.[151][152] Multiple other interstellar clouds exist in the region within 300 light-years of the Sun, known as the Local Bubble.[152] The latter feature is an hourglass-shaped cavity or superbubble in the interstellar medium roughly 300 light-years across. The bubble is suffused with high-temperature plasma, suggesting that it may be the product of several recent supernovae.[153] The Local Bubble is a small superbubble compared to the neighboring wider Radcliffe Wave and Split linear structures (formerly Gould Belt), each of which are some thousands of light-years in length.[154] All these structures are part of the Orion Arm, which contains most of the stars in the Milky Way that are visible to the unaided eye.[155] The nearest and unaided-visible group of stars beyond the immediate celestial neighborhood is the Ursa Major moving group at roughly 80 light-years, which is within the Local Bubble, like the nearest as well as unaided-visible star cluster the Hyades, which lie at its edge. The closest star-forming regions are the Corona Australis Molecular Cloud, the Rho Ophiuchi cloud complex and the Taurus molecular cloud; the latter lies just beyond the Local Bubble and is part of the Radcliffe wave.[156] Being part of the Milky Way galaxy the Sun, taking along the whole Solar System, moves in an orbital fashion around the galaxy's center of mass at an average speed of 230 km/s (828,000 km/h) or 143 mi/s (514,000 mph),[159] taking about 220–250 million Earth years to complete a revolution (a Galactic year),[160] having done so about 20 times since the Sun's formation.[161] The direction of the Sun's motion, the Solar apex is roughly in the direction of the star Vega. The Sun has been an object of veneration in many cultures throughout human history. Humanity's most fundamental understanding of the Sun is as the luminous disk in the sky, whose presence above the horizon causes day and whose absence causes night. In many prehistoric and ancient cultures, the Sun was thought to be a solar deity or other supernatural entity. The Sun has played an important part in many world religions, as described in a later section. In the early first millennium BC, Babylonian astronomers observed that the Sun's motion along the ecliptic is not uniform, though they did not know why; it is today known that this is due to the movement of Earth in an elliptic orbit around the Sun, with Earth moving faster when it is nearer to the Sun at perihelion and moving slower when it is farther away at aphelion.[162] One of the first people to offer a scientific or philosophical explanation for the Sun was the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras. He reasoned that it was not the chariot of Helios, but instead a giant flaming ball of metal even larger than the land of the Peloponnesus and that the Moon reflected the light of the Sun.[163] For teaching this heresy, he was imprisoned by the authorities and sentenced to death, though he was later released through the intervention of Pericles. Eratosthenes estimated the distance between Earth and the Sun in the third century BC as \"of stadia myriads 400 and 80000\", the translation of which is ambiguous, implying either 4,080,000 stadia (755,000 km) or 804,000,000 stadia (148 to 153 million kilometers or 0.99 to 1.02 AU); the latter value is correct to within a few percent. In the first century AD, Ptolemy estimated the distance as 1,210 times the radius of Earth, approximately 7.71 million kilometers (0.0515 AU).[164] The theory that the Sun is the center around which the planets orbit was first proposed by the ancient Greek Aristarchus of Samos in the third century BC, and later adopted by Seleucus of Seleucia (see Heliocentrism). This view was developed in a more detailed mathematical model of a heliocentric system in the 16th century by Nicolaus Copernicus. Observations of sunspots were recorded during the Han Dynasty (206 BC–AD 220) by Chinese astronomers, who maintained records of these observations for centuries. Averroes also provided a description of sunspots in the 12th century.[165] The invention of the telescope in the early 17th century permitted detailed observations of sunspots by Thomas Harriot, Galileo Galilei and other astronomers. Galileo posited that sunspots were on the surface of the Sun rather than small objects passing between Earth and the Sun.[166] Arabic astronomical contributions include Al-Battani's discovery that the direction of the Sun's apogee (the place in the Sun's orbit against the fixed stars where it seems to be moving slowest) is changing.[167] (In modern heliocentric terms, this is caused by a gradual motion of the aphelion of the Earth's orbit). Ibn Yunus observed more than 10,000 entries for the Sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe.[168] From an observation of a transit of Venus in 1032, the Persian astronomer and polymath Ibn Sina concluded that Venus was closer to Earth than the Sun.[169] In 1672 Giovanni Cassini and Jean Richer determined the distance to Mars and were thereby able to calculate the distance to the Sun. In 1666, Isaac Newton observed the Sun's light using a prism, and showed that it is made up of light of many colors.[170] In 1800, William Herschel discovered infrared radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum.[171] The 19th century saw advancement in spectroscopic studies of the Sun; Joseph von Fraunhofer recorded more than 600 absorption lines in the spectrum, the strongest of which are still often referred to as Fraunhofer lines. The 20th century brought about several specialized systems for observing the Sun, especially at different narrowband wavelengths, such as those using Calcium H (396.9 nm), K (393.37 nm) and Hydrogen-alpha (656.46 nm) filtering. In the early years of the modern scientific era, the source of the Sun's energy was a significant puzzle. Lord Kelvin suggested that the Sun is a gradually cooling liquid body that is radiating an internal store of heat.[172] Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz then proposed a gravitational contraction mechanism to explain the energy output, but the resulting age estimate was only 20 million years, well short of the time span of at least 300 million years suggested by some geological discoveries of that time.[172][173] In 1890, Joseph Lockyer, who discovered helium in the solar spectrum, proposed a meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of the Sun.[174] Not until 1904 was a documented solution offered. Ernest Rutherford suggested that the Sun's output could be maintained by an internal source of heat, and suggested radioactive decay as the source.[175] However, it would be Albert Einstein who would provide the essential clue to the source of the Sun's energy output with his mass–energy equivalence relation E = mc2.[176] In 1920, Sir Arthur Eddington proposed that the pressures and temperatures at the core of the Sun could produce a nuclear fusion reaction that merged hydrogen (protons) into helium nuclei, resulting in a production of energy from the net change in mass.[177] The preponderance of hydrogen in the Sun was confirmed in 1925 by Cecilia Payne using the ionization theory developed by Meghnad Saha. The theoretical concept of fusion was developed in the 1930s by the astrophysicists Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and Hans Bethe. Hans Bethe calculated the details of the two main energy-producing nuclear reactions that power the Sun.[178][179] In 1957, Margaret Burbidge, Geoffrey Burbidge, William Fowler and Fred Hoyle showed that most of the elements in the universe have been synthesized by nuclear reactions inside stars, some like the Sun.[180] The first satellites designed for long term observation of the Sun from interplanetary space were NASA's Pioneers 6, 7, 8 and 9, which were launched between 1959 and 1968. These probes orbited the Sun at a distance similar to that of Earth, and made the first detailed measurements of the solar wind and the solar magnetic field. Pioneer 9 operated for a particularly long time, transmitting data until May 1983.[181][182] In the 1970s, two Helios spacecraft and the Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount provided scientists with significant new data on solar wind and the solar corona. The Helios 1 and 2 probes were U.S.–German collaborations that studied the solar wind from an orbit carrying the spacecraft inside Mercury's orbit at perihelion.[183] The Skylab space station, launched by NASA in 1973, included a solar observatory module called the Apollo Telescope Mount that was operated by astronauts resident on the station.[80] Skylab made the first time-resolved observations of the solar transition region and of ultraviolet emissions from the solar corona.[80] Discoveries included the first observations of coronal mass ejections, then called \"coronal transients\", and of coronal holes, now known to be intimately associated with the solar wind.[183] In the 1970s, much research focused on the abundances of iron-group elements in the Sun.[184][185] Although significant research was done, until 1978 it was difficult to determine the abundances of some iron-group elements (e.g. cobalt and manganese) via spectrography because of their hyperfine structures.[184] The first largely complete set of oscillator strengths of singly ionized iron-group elements were made available in the 1960s,[186] and these were subsequently improved.[187] In 1978, the abundances of singly ionized elements of the iron group were derived.[184] Various authors have considered the existence of a gradient in the isotopic compositions of solar and planetary noble gases,[188] e.g. correlations between isotopic compositions of neon and xenon in the Sun and on the planets.[189] Prior to 1983, it was thought that the whole Sun has the same composition as the solar atmosphere.[190] In 1983, it was claimed that it was fractionation in the Sun itself that caused the isotopic-composition relationship between the planetary and solar-wind-implanted noble gases.[190] In 1980, the Solar Maximum Mission probes were launched by NASA. This spacecraft was designed to observe gamma rays, X-rays and UV radiation from solar flares during a time of high solar activity and solar luminosity. Just a few months after launch, however, an electronics failure caused the probe to go into standby mode, and it spent the next three years in this inactive state. In 1984, Space Shuttle Challenger mission STS-41C retrieved the satellite and repaired its electronics before re-releasing it into orbit. The Solar Maximum Mission subsequently acquired thousands of images of the solar corona before re-entering Earth's atmosphere in June 1989.[191] Launched in 1991, Japan's Yohkoh (Sunbeam) satellite observed solar flares at X-ray wavelengths. Mission data allowed scientists to identify several different types of flares and demonstrated that the corona away from regions of peak activity was much more dynamic and active than had previously been supposed. Yohkoh observed an entire solar cycle but went into standby mode when an annular eclipse in 2001 caused it to lose its lock on the Sun. It was destroyed by atmospheric re-entry in 2005.[192] One of the most important solar missions to date has been the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, jointly built by the European Space Agency and NASA and launched on 2 December 1995.[80] Originally intended to serve a two-year mission, a mission extension through 2012 was approved in October 2009.[193] It has proven so useful that a follow-on mission, the Solar Dynamics Observatory, was launched in February 2010.[194] Situated at the Lagrangian point between Earth and the Sun (at which the gravitational pull from both is equal), SOHO has provided a constant view of the Sun at many wavelengths since its launch.[80] Besides its direct solar observation, SOHO has enabled the discovery of a large number of comets, mostly tiny sungrazing comets that incinerate as they pass the Sun.[195] All these satellites have observed the Sun from the plane of the ecliptic, and so have only observed its equatorial regions in detail. The Ulysses probe was launched in 1990 to study the Sun's polar regions. It first traveled to Jupiter, to \"slingshot\" into an orbit that would take it far above the plane of the ecliptic. Once Ulysses was in its scheduled orbit, it began observing the solar wind and magnetic field strength at high solar latitudes, finding that the solar wind from high latitudes was moving at about 750 km/s, which was slower than expected, and that there were large magnetic waves emerging from high latitudes that scattered galactic cosmic rays.[196] Elemental abundances in the photosphere are well known from spectroscopic studies, but the composition of the interior of the Sun is more poorly understood. A solar wind sample return mission, Genesis, was designed to allow astronomers to directly measure the composition of solar material.[197] Why is the Sun's corona so much hotter than the Sun's surface? The temperature of the photosphere is approximately 6,000 K, whereas the temperature of the corona reaches 1,000,000–2,000,000 K.[79] The high temperature of the corona shows that it is heated by something other than direct heat conduction from the photosphere.[81] It is thought that the energy necessary to heat the corona is provided by turbulent motion in the convection zone below the photosphere, and two main mechanisms have been proposed to explain coronal heating.[79] The first is wave heating, in which sound, gravitational or magnetohydrodynamic waves are produced by turbulence in the convection zone.[79] These waves travel upward and dissipate in the corona, depositing their energy in the ambient matter in the form of heat.[204] The other is magnetic heating, in which magnetic energy is continuously built up by photospheric motion and released through magnetic reconnection in the form of large solar flares and myriad similar but smaller events—nanoflares.[205] Currently, it is unclear whether waves are an efficient heating mechanism. All waves except Alfvén waves have been found to dissipate or refract before reaching the corona.[206] In addition, Alfvén waves do not easily dissipate in the corona. Current research focus has therefore shifted towards flare heating mechanisms.[79] How could the early Earth have had liquid water if the Sun's output is predicted to have only been 70% as intense as it is today? Theoretical models of the Sun's development suggest that 3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago, during the Archean eon, the Sun was only about 75% as bright as it is today. Such a weak star would not have been able to sustain liquid water on Earth's surface, and thus life should not have been able to develop. However, the geological record demonstrates that Earth has remained at a fairly constant temperature throughout its history and that the young Earth was somewhat warmer than it is today. One theory among scientists is that the atmosphere of the young Earth contained much larger quantities of greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide, methane) than are present today, which trapped enough heat to compensate for the smaller amount of solar energy reaching it.[207] However, examination of Archaean sediments appears inconsistent with the hypothesis of high greenhouse concentrations. Instead, the moderate temperature range may be explained by a lower surface albedo brought about by less continental area and the lack of biologically induced cloud condensation nuclei. This would have led to increased absorption of solar energy, thereby compensating for the lower solar output.[208] The brightness of the Sun can cause pain from looking at it with the naked eye; however, doing so for brief periods is not hazardous for normal non-dilated eyes.[209][210] Looking directly at the Sun (sungazing) causes phosphene visual artifacts and temporary partial blindness. It also delivers about 4 milliwatts of sunlight to the retina, slightly heating it and potentially causing damage in eyes that cannot respond properly to the brightness.[211][212] Viewing of the direct Sun with the naked eye can cause UV-induced, sunburn-like lesions on the retina beginning after about 100 seconds, particularly under conditions where the UV light from the Sun is intense and well focused.[213][214] Viewing the Sun through light-concentrating optics such as binoculars may result in permanent damage to the retina without an appropriate filter that blocks UV and substantially dims the sunlight. When using an attenuating filter to view the Sun, the viewer is cautioned to use a filter specifically designed for that use. Some improvised filters that pass UV or IR rays, can actually harm the eye at high brightness levels.[215] Brief glances at the midday Sun through an unfiltered telescope can cause permanent damage.[216] During sunrise and sunset, sunlight is attenuated because of Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering from a particularly long passage through Earth's atmosphere,[217] and the Sun is sometimes faint enough to be viewed comfortably with the naked eye or safely with optics (provided there is no risk of bright sunlight suddenly appearing through a break between clouds). Hazy conditions, atmospheric dust, and high humidity contribute to this atmospheric attenuation.[218] An optical phenomenon, known as a green flash, can sometimes be seen shortly after sunset or before sunrise. The flash is caused by light from the Sun just below the horizon being bent (usually through a temperature inversion) towards the observer. Light of shorter wavelengths (violet, blue, green) is bent more than that of longer wavelengths (yellow, orange, red) but the violet and blue light is scattered more, leaving light that is perceived as green.[219] Solar deities play a major role in many world religions and mythologies.[220] Worship of the Sun was central to civilizations such as the ancient Egyptians, the Inca of South America and the Aztecs of what is now Mexico. In religions such as Hinduism, the Sun is still considered a god, known as Surya. Many ancient monuments were constructed with solar phenomena in mind; for example, stone megaliths accurately mark the summer or winter solstice (for example in Nabta Playa, Egypt; Mnajdra, Malta; and Stonehenge, England); Newgrange, a prehistoric human-built mount in Ireland, was designed to detect the winter solstice; the pyramid of El Castillo at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is designed to cast shadows in the shape of serpents climbing the pyramid at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. The ancient Sumerians believed that the Sun was Utu,[221][222] the god of justice and twin brother of Inanna, the Queen of Heaven,[221] who was identified as the planet Venus.[222] Later, Utu was identified with the East Semitic god Shamash.[221][222] Utu was regarded as a helper-deity, who aided those in distress.[221] From at least the Fourth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt, the Sun was worshipped as the god Ra, portrayed as a falcon-headed divinity surmounted by the solar disk, and surrounded by a serpent. In the New Empire period, the Sun became identified with the dung beetle. In the form of the sun disc Aten, the Sun had a brief resurgence during the Amarna Period when it again became the preeminent, if not only, divinity for the Pharaoh Akhenaton.[223][224] The Egyptians portrayed the god Ra as being carried across the sky in a solar barque, accompanied by lesser gods, and to the Greeks, he was Helios, carried by a chariot drawn by fiery horses. From the reign of Elagabalus in the late Roman Empire the Sun's birthday was a holiday celebrated as Sol Invictus (literally \"Unconquered Sun\") soon after the winter solstice, which may have been an antecedent to Christmas. Regarding the fixed stars, the Sun appears from Earth to revolve once a year along the ecliptic through the zodiac, and so Greek astronomers categorized it as one of the seven planets (Greek planetes, \"wanderer\"); the naming of the days of the weeks after the seven planets dates to the Roman era.[225][226][227] In Proto-Indo-European religion, the Sun was personified as the goddess *Seh2ul.[228][229] Derivatives of this goddess in Indo-European languages include the Old Norse Sól, Sanskrit Surya, Gaulish Sulis, Lithuanian Saulė, and Slavic Solntse.[229] In ancient Greek religion, the sun deity was the male god Helios,[230] who in later times was syncretized with Apollo.[231] In the Bible, Malachi 4:2 mentions the \"Sun of Righteousness\" (sometimes translated as the \"Sun of Justice\"),[232][233] which some Christians have interpreted as a reference to the Messiah (Christ).[234] In ancient Roman culture, Sunday was the day of the sun god. In paganism, the Sun was a source of life, giving warmth and illumination. It was the center of a popular cult among Romans, who would stand at dawn to catch the first rays of sunshine as they prayed. The celebration of the winter solstice (which influenced Christmas) was part of the Roman cult of the unconquered Sun (Sol Invictus). It was adopted as the Sabbath day by Christians. The symbol of light was a pagan device adopted by Christians, and perhaps the most important one that did not come from Jewish traditions. Christian churches were built so that the congregation faced toward the sunrise.[235] Tonatiuh, the Aztec god of the sun,[236] was closely associated with the practice of human sacrifice.[236] The sun goddess Amaterasu is the most important deity in the Shinto religion,[237][238] and she is believed to be the direct ancestor of all Japanese emperors.[237] Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Local Sheet → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Local Hole → Observable universe → UniverseEach arrow (→) may be read as \"within\" or \"part of\".\n",
      "\n",
      "URL: https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/resource-library-earth-sun-relationships/\n",
      "Text content: It is Earth’s relationship to the sun, and the amount of light it receives, that is responsible for the seasons and biodiversity. The amount of sun a region receives depends on the tilt of Earth’s axis and not its distance from the sun. The Northern Hemisphere experiences summer during the months of June, July, and August because it is tilted toward the sun and receives the most direct sunlight. Inversely, summer for the Southern Hemisphere takes place during the months of December, January, and February because that is when it receives the most direct sunlight. K, 1 - 12+ Earth Science, Astronomy, Geology, Geography, Physical Geography National Geographic Headquarters 1145 17th Street NW Washington, DC 20036 National Geographic Society is a 501 (c)(3) organization. © 1996 - 2024 National Geographic Society. All rights reserved.\n",
      "\n",
      "URL: https://science.nasa.gov/sun/facts/\n",
      "Text content: Our Sun is a 4.5 billion-year-old yellow dwarf star – a hot glowing ball of hydrogen and helium – at the center of our solar system. It’s about 93 million miles (150 million kilometers) from Earth and it’s our solar system’s only star. Without the Sun’s energy, life as we know it could not exist on our home planet. The Sun is about 100 times wider than Earth and about 10 times wider than Jupiter, the biggest planet. The Sun is the only star in our solar system. It is the center of our solar system, and its gravity holds the solar system together. Everything in our solar system revolves around it – the planets, asteroids, comets, and tiny bits of space debris. Measuring a “day” on the Sun is complicated. The Sun is made of super-hot, electrically charged gas called plasma. This plasma rotates at different speeds on different parts of the Sun. At its equator, the Sun completes one rotation in 25 Earth days. At its poles, the Sun rotates once on its axis every 36 Earth days. The part of the Sun we see from Earth – the part we call the surface – is the photosphere. The Sun doesn’t actually have a solid surface because it’s a ball of plasma. Above the Sun’s surface are its thin chromosphere and the huge corona (crown). This is where we see features such as solar prominences, flares, and coronal mass ejections. The latter two are giant explosions of energy and particles that can reach Earth. The Sun doesn’t have moons, but it’s orbited by eight planets, at least five dwarf planets, tens of thousands of asteroids, and perhaps three trillion comets and icy bodies. Several spacecraft are currently investigating the Sun including Parker Solar Probe, STEREO, Solar Orbiter, SOHO, Solar Dynamics Observatory, Hinode, IRIS, and Wind. The Sun would have been surrounded by a disk of gas and dust early in its history when the solar system was first forming 4.6 billion years ago. Some of that dust is still around today, in several dust rings that circle the Sun. They trace the orbits of planets, whose gravity tugs dust into place around the Sun. Nothing could live on the Sun, but its energy is vital for most life on Earth. The temperature in the Sun's core is about 27 million degrees Fahrenheit (15 million degrees Celsius) – hot enough to sustain nuclear fusion. This creates outward pressure that supports the star's gigantic mass, keeping it from collapsing. From our vantage point on Earth, the Sun may appear like an unchanging source of light and heat in the sky. But the Sun is a dynamic star, constantly changing and sending energy out into space. The science of studying the Sun and its influence throughout the solar system is called heliophysics. The Sun is the largest object in our solar system. Its diameter is about 865,000 miles (1.4 million kilometers). Its gravity holds the solar system together, keeping everything from the biggest planets to the smallest bits of debris in orbit around it. Even though the Sun is the center of our solar system and essential to our survival, it’s only an average star in terms of its size. Stars up to 100 times larger have been found. And many solar systems have more than one star. By studying our Sun, scientists can better understand the workings of distant stars. The hottest part of the Sun is its core, where temperatures top 27 million °F (15 million °C). The part of the Sun we call its surface – the photosphere – is a relatively cool 10,000 °F (5,500 °C). In one of the Sun’s biggest mysteries, the Sun’s outer atmosphere, the corona, gets hotter the farther it stretches from the surface. The corona reaches up to 3.5 million °F (2 million °C) – much, much hotter than the photosphere. The Sun has been called by many names. The Latin word for Sun is “sol,” which is the main adjective for all things Sun-related: solar. Helios, the Sun god in ancient Greek mythology, lends his name to many Sun-related terms as well, such as heliosphere and helioseismology. The Sun could not harbor life as we know it because of its extreme temperatures and radiation. Yet life on Earth is only possible because of the Sun’s light and energy. Our Sun is a medium-sized star with a radius of about 435,000 miles (700,000 kilometers). Many stars are much larger – but the Sun is far more massive than our home planet: it would take more than 330,000 Earths to match the mass of the Sun, and it would take 1.3 million Earths to fill the Sun's volume. The Sun is about 93 million miles (150 million kilometers) from Earth. Its nearest stellar neighbor is the Alpha Centauri triple star system: red dwarf star Proxima Centauri is 4.24 light-years away, and Alpha Centauri A and B – two sunlike stars orbiting each other – are 4.37 light-years away. A light-year is the distance light travels in one year, which equals about 6 trillion miles (9.5 trillion kilometers). The Sun is located in the Milky Way galaxy in a spiral arm called the Orion Spur that extends outward from the Sagittarius arm. The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way, bringing with it the planets, asteroids, comets, and other objects in our solar system. Our solar system is moving with an average velocity of 450,000 miles per hour (720,000 kilometers per hour). But even at this speed, it takes about 230 million years for the Sun to make one complete trip around the Milky Way. The Sun rotates on its axis as it revolves around the galaxy. Its spin has a tilt of 7.25 degrees with respect to the plane of the planets’ orbits. Since the Sun is not solid, different parts rotate at different rates. At the equator, the Sun spins around once about every 25 Earth days, but at its poles, the Sun rotates once on its axis every 36 Earth days. As a star, the Sun doesn’t have any moons, but the planets and their moons orbit the Sun. The Sun would have been surrounded by a disk of gas and dust early in its history when the solar system was first forming, about 4.6 billion years ago. Some of that dust is still around today, in several dust rings that circle the Sun. They trace the orbits of planets, whose gravity tugs dust into place around the Sun. The Sun formed about 4.6 billion years ago in a giant, spinning cloud of gas and dust called the solar nebula. As the nebula collapsed under its own gravity, it spun faster and flattened into a disk. Most of the nebula's material was pulled toward the center to form our Sun, which accounts for 99.8% of our solar system’s mass. Much of the remaining material formed the planets and other objects that now orbit the Sun. (The rest of the leftover gas and dust was blown away by the young Sun's early solar wind.) Like all stars, our Sun will eventually run out of energy. When it starts to die, the Sun will expand into a red giant star, becoming so large that it will engulf Mercury and Venus, and possibly Earth as well. Scientists predict the Sun is a little less than halfway through its lifetime and will last another 5 billion years or so before it becomes a white dwarf. The Sun is a huge ball of hydrogen and helium held together by its own gravity. The Sun has several regions. The interior regions include the core, the radiative zone, and the convection zone. Moving outward – the visible surface or photosphere is next, then the chromosphere, followed by the transition zone, and then the corona – the Sun’s expansive outer atmosphere. Once material leaves the corona at supersonic speeds, it becomes the solar wind, which forms a huge magnetic \"bubble\" around the Sun, called the heliosphere. The heliosphere extends beyond the orbit of the planets in our solar system. Thus, Earth exists inside the Sun’s atmosphere. Outside the heliosphere is interstellar space. The core is the hottest part of the Sun. Nuclear reactions here – where hydrogen is fused to form helium – power the Sun’s heat and light. Temperatures top 27 million °F (15 million °C) and it’s about 86,000 miles (138,000 kilometers) thick. The density of the Sun’s core is about 150 grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³). That is approximately 8 times the density of gold (19.3 g/cm³) or 13 times the density of lead (11.3 g/cm³). Energy from the core is carried outward by radiation. This radiation bounces around the radiative zone, taking about 170,000 years to get from the core to the top of the convection zone. Moving outward, in the convection zone, the temperature drops below 3.5 million °F (2 million °C). Here, large bubbles of hot plasma (a soup of ionized atoms) move upward toward the photosphere, which is the layer we think of as the Sun's surface. The Sun doesn’t have a solid surface like Earth and the other rocky planets and moons. The part of the Sun commonly called its surface is the photosphere. The word photosphere means \"light sphere\" – which is apt because this is the layer that emits the most visible light. It’s what we see from Earth with our eyes. (Hopefully, it goes without saying – but never look directly at the Sun without protecting your eyes.) Although we call it the surface, the photosphere is actually the first layer of the solar atmosphere. It's about 250 miles thick, with temperatures reaching about 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit (5,500 degrees Celsius). That's much cooler than the blazing core, but it's still hot enough to make carbon – like diamonds and graphite – not just melt, but boil. Most of the Sun's radiation escapes outward from the photosphere into space. Above the photosphere is the chromosphere, the transition zone, and the corona. Not all scientists refer to the transition zone as its own region – it is simply the thin layer where the chromosphere rapidly heats and becomes the corona. The photosphere, chromosphere, and corona are all part of the Sun’s atmosphere. (The corona is sometimes casually referred to as “the Sun’s atmosphere,” but it is actually the Sun’s upper atmosphere.) The Sun’s atmosphere is where we see features such as sunspots, coronal holes, and solar flares. Visible light from these top regions of the Sun is usually too weak to be seen against the brighter photosphere, but during total solar eclipses, when the Moon covers the photosphere, the chromosphere looks like a fine, red rim around the Sun, while the corona forms a beautiful white crown (\"corona\" means crown in Latin and Spanish) with plasma streamers narrowing outward, forming shapes that look like flower petals. In one of the Sun’s biggest mysteries, the corona is much hotter than the layers immediately below it. (Imagine walking away from a bonfire only to get warmer.) The source of coronal heating is a major unsolved puzzle in the study of the Sun. The Sun generates magnetic fields that extend out into space to form the interplanetary magnetic field – the magnetic field that pervades our solar system. The field is carried through the solar system by the solar wind – a stream of electrically charged gas blowing outward from the Sun in all directions. The vast bubble of space dominated by the Sun’s magnetic field is called the heliosphere. Since the Sun rotates, the magnetic field spins out into a large rotating spiral, known as the Parker spiral. This spiral has a shape something like the pattern of water from a rotating garden sprinkler. The Sun doesn't behave the same way all the time. It goes through phases of high and low activity, which make up the solar cycle. Approximately every 11 years, the Sun’s geographic poles change their magnetic polarity – that is, the north and south magnetic poles swap. During this cycle, the Sun's photosphere, chromosphere, and corona change from quiet and calm to violently active. The height of the Sun’s activity cycle, known as solar maximum, is a time of greatly increased solar storm activity. Sunspots, eruptions called solar flares, and coronal mass ejections are common at solar maximum. The latest solar cycle – Solar Cycle 25 – started in December 2019 when solar minimum occurred, according to the Solar Cycle 25 Prediction Panel, an international group of experts co-sponsored by NASA and NOAA. Scientists now expect the Sun’s activity to ramp up toward the next predicted maximum in July 2025. Solar activity can release huge amounts of energy and particles, some of which impact us here on Earth. Much like weather on Earth, conditions in space – known as space weather – are always changing with the Sun’s activity. \"Space weather\" can interfere with satellites, GPS, and radio communications. It also can cripple power grids, and corrode pipelines that carry oil and gas. The strongest geomagnetic storm on record is the Carrington Event, named for British astronomer Richard Carrington who observed the Sept. 1, 1859, solar flare that triggered the event. Telegraph systems worldwide went haywire. Spark discharges shocked telegraph operators and set their telegraph paper on fire. Just before dawn the next day, skies all over Earth erupted in red, green, and purple auroras – the result of energy and particles from the Sun interacting with Earth’s atmosphere. Reportedly, the auroras were so brilliant that newspapers could be read as easily as in daylight. The auroras, or Northern Lights, were visible as far south as Cuba, the Bahamas, Jamaica, El Salvador, and Hawaii. Another solar flare on March 13, 1989, caused geomagnetic storms that disrupted electric power transmission from the Hydro Québec generating station in Canada, plunging 6 million people into darkness for 9 hours. The 1989 flare also caused power surges that melted power transformers in New Jersey. In December 2005, X-rays from a solar storm disrupted satellite-to-ground communications and Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation signals for about 10 minutes. NOAA’s Space Weather Prediction Center monitors active regions on the Sun and issues watches, warnings, and alerts for hazardous space weather events. Length of day: 25 Earth days at the equator and 36 Earth days at the poles. Length of year: The Sun doesn't have a \"year,\" per se. But the Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way about every 230 million Earth years, bringing the planets, asteroids, comets, and other objects with it. Star type: G2 V, yellow dwarf main-sequence star Surface temperature: (Photosphere) 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit (5,500 degrees Celsius) Corona (solar atmosphere) temperature: Up to 3.5 million °F (2 million °C) Sun Planets Asteroids, Comets & Meteors Kuiper Belt NASA explores the unknown in air and space, innovates for the benefit of humanity, and inspires the world through discovery.\n",
      "\n",
      "URL: https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/sun/\n",
      "Text content: The sun is an ordinary star, one of about 100 billion in our galaxy, the Milky Way. The sun has extremely important influences on our planet: It drives weather, ocean currents, seasons, and climate, and makes plant life possible through photosynthesis. 5 - 12+ Biology, Earth Science, Astronomy, Physics The sun is an ordinary star, one of about 100 billion in our galaxy, the Milky Way. The sun has extremely important influences on our planet: It drives weather, ocean currents, seasons, and climate, and makes plant life possible through photosynthesis. Without the sun’s heat and light, life on Earth would not exist.About 4.5 billion years ago, the sun began to take shape from a molecular cloud that was mainly composed of hydrogen and helium. A nearby supernova emitted a shockwave, which came in contact with the molecular cloud and energized it. The molecular cloud began to compress, and some regions of gas collapsed under their own gravitational pull. As one of these regions collapsed, it also began to rotate and heat up from increasing pressure. Much of the hydrogen and helium remained in the center of this hot, rotating mass. Eventually, the gases heated up enough to begin nuclear fusion, and became the sun in our solar system.Other parts of the molecular cloud cooled into a disc around the brand-new sun and became planets, asteroids, comets, and other bodies in our solar system.The sun is about 150 million kilometers (93 million miles) from Earth. This distance, called an astronomical unit (AU), is a standard measure of distance for astronomers and astrophysicists.An AU can be measured at light speed, or the time it takes for a photon of light to travel from the sun to Earth. It takes light about eight minutes and 19 seconds to reach Earth from the sun.The radius of the sun, or the distance from the very center to the outer limits, is about 700,000 kilometers (432,000 miles). That distance is about 109 times the size of Earth’s radius. The sun not only has a much larger radius than Earth—it is also much more massive. The sun’s mass is more than 333,000 times that of Earth, and contains about 99.8 percent of all of the mass in the entire solar system!CompositionThe sun is made up of a blazing combination of gases. These gases are actually in the form of plasma. Plasma is a state of matter similar to gas, but with most of the particles ionized. This means the particles have an increased or reduced number of electrons.About three quarters of the sun is hydrogen, which is constantly fusing together and creating helium by a process called nuclear fusion. Helium makes up almost the entire remaining quarter. A very small percentage (1.69 percent) of the sun’s mass is made up of other gases and metals: iron, nickel, oxygen, silicon, sulfur, magnesium, carbon, neon, calcium, and chromium This 1.69 percent may seem insignificant, but its mass is still 5,628 times the mass of Earth.The sun is not a solid mass. It does not have the easily identifiable boundaries of rocky planets like Earth. Instead, the sun is composed of layers made up almost entirely of hydrogen and helium. These gases carry out different functions in each layer, and the sun’s layers are measured by their percentage of the sun’s total radius.The sun is permeated and somewhat controlled by a magnetic field. The magnetic field is defined by a combination of three complex mechanisms: a circular electric current that runs through the sun, layers of the sun that rotate at different speeds, and the sun’s ability to conduct electricity. Near the sun’s equator, magnetic field lines make small loops near the surface. Magnetic field lines that flow through the poles extend much farther, thousands of kilometers, before returning to the opposite pole.The sun rotates around its own axis, just like Earth. The sun rotates counterclockwise, and takes between 25 and 35 days to complete a single rotation.The sun orbits clockwise around the center of the Milky Way. Its orbit is between 24,000 and 26,000 light-years away from the galactic center. The sun takes about 225 million to 250 million years to orbit one time around the galactic center.Electromagnetic RadiationThe sun’s energy travels to Earth at the speed of light in the form of electromagnetic radiation (EMR).The electromagnetic spectrum exists as waves of different frequencies and wavelengths.The frequency of a wave represents how many times the wave repeats itself in a certain unit of time. Waves with very short wavelengths repeat themselves several times in a given unit of time, so they are high-frequency. In contrast, low-frequency waves have much longer wavelengths.The vast majority of electromagnetic waves that come from the sun are invisible to us. The most high-frequency waves emitted by the sun are gamma rays, x-rays, and ultraviolet radiation (UV rays). The most harmful UV rays are almost completely absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere. Less potent UV rays travel through the atmosphere, and can cause sunburn.The sun also emits infrared radiation—whose waves are a much lower-frequency. Most heat from the sun arrives as infrared energy.Sandwiched between infrared and UV is the visible spectrum, which contains all the colors we, as humans, can see. The color red has the longest wavelengths (closest to infrared), and violet (closest to UV) the shortest.The sun itself is white, which means it contains all the colors in the visible spectrum. The sun appears orangish-yellow because the blue light it emits has a shorter wavelength, and is scattered in the atmosphere—the same process that makes the sky appear blue.Astronomers, however, call the sun a “yellow dwarf” star because its colors fall within the yellow-green section of the electromagnetic spectrum.Evolution of the SunThe sun, although it has sustained all life on our planet, will not shine forever. The sun has already existed for about 4.5 billion years.The process of nuclear fusion, which creates the heat and light that make life on our planet possible, is also the process that slowly changes the sun’s composition. Through nuclear fusion, the sun is constantly using up the hydrogen in its core: Every second, the sun fuses around 620 million metric tons of hydrogen into helium.At this stage in the sun’s life, its core is about 74 percent hydrogen. Over the next five billion years, the sun will burn through most of its hydrogen, and helium will become its major source of fuel.Over those five billion years, the sun will go from “yellow dwarf” to “red giant.” When almost all of the hydrogen in the sun’s core has been consumed, the core will contract and heat up, increasing the amount of nuclear fusion that takes place. The outer layers of the sun will expand from this extra energy.The sun will expand to about 200 times its current radius, swallowing Mercury and Venus.Astrophysicists debate whether Earth’s orbit would expand beyond the sun’s reach, or if our planet would be engulfed by the sun as well.As the sun expands, it will spread its energy over a larger surface area, which has an overall cooling effect on the star. This cooling will shift the sun’s visible light to a reddish color—a red giant.Eventually, the sun’s core reaches a temperature of about 100 million on the Kelvin scale (almost 100 million degrees Celsius or 180 million degrees Farenheit), the common scientific scale for measuring temperature. When it reaches this temperature, helium will begin fusing to create carbon, a much heavier element. This will cause intense solar wind and other solar activity, which will eventually throw off the entire outer layers of the sun. The red giant phase will be over. Only the sun’s carbon core will be left, and as a “white dwarf,” it will not create or emit energy.Sun’s StructureThe sun is made up of six layers: core, radiative zone, convective zone, photosphere, chromosphere, and corona.CoreThe sun’s core, more than a thousand times the size of Earth and more than 10 times denser than lead, is a huge furnace. Temperatures in the core exceed 15.7 million kelvin (also 15.7 million degrees Celsius, or 28 million degrees Fahrenheit). The core extends to about 25 percent of the sun’s radius.The core is the only place where nuclear fusion reactions can happen. The sun’s other layers are heated from the nuclear energy created there. Protons of hydrogen atoms violently collide and fuse, or join together, to create a helium atom.This process, known as a PP (proton-proton) chain reaction, emits an enormous amount of energy. The energy released during one second of solar fusion is far greater than that released in the explosion of hundreds of thousands of hydrogen bombs.During nuclear fusion in the core, two types of energy are released: photons and neutrinos. These particles carry and emit the light, heat, and energy of the sun. Photons are the smallest particle of light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation. Neutrinos are more difficult to detect, and only account for about two percent of the sun’s total energy. The sun emits both photons and neutrinos in all directions, all the time.Radiative ZoneThe radiative zone of the sun starts at about 25 percent of the radius, and extends to about 70 percent of the radius. In this broad zone, heat from the core cools dramatically, from between seven million K (12 million°F or 7 million°C) to two million K (2 million°C or 4 million°F).In the radiative zone, energy is transferred by a process called thermal radiation. During this process, photons that were released in the core travel a short distance, are absorbed by a nearby ion, released by that ion, and absorbed again by another. One photon can continue this process for almost 200,000 years!Transition Zone: TachoclineBetween the radiative zone and the next layer, the convective zone, there is a transition zone called the tachocline. This region is created as a result of the sun’s differential rotation.Differential rotation happens when different parts of an object rotate at different velocities. The sun is made up of gases undergoing different processes at different layers and different latitudes. The sun’s equator rotates much faster than its poles, for instance.The rotation rate of the sun changes rapidly in the tachocline.Convective ZoneAt around 70 percent of the sun’s radius, the convective zone begins. In this zone, the sun’s temperature is not hot enough to transfer energy by thermal radiation. Instead, it transfers heat by thermal convection through thermal columns.Similar to water boiling in a pot, or hot wax in a lava lamp, gases deep in the sun’s convective zone are heated and “boil” outward, away from the sun’s core, through thermal columns. When the gases reach the outer limits of the convective zone, they cool down, and plunge back to the base of the convective zone, to be heated again.PhotosphereThe photosphere is the bright yellow, visible \"surface\" of the sun. The photosphere is about 400 kilometers (250 miles) thick, and temperatures there reach about 6,000K (5,700°C, 10,300°F).The thermal columns of the convection zone are visible in the photosphere, bubbling like boiling oatmeal. Through powerful telescopes, the tops of the columns appear as granules crowded across the sun. Each granule has a bright center, which is the hot gas rising through a thermal column. The granules’ dark edges are the cool gas descending back down the column to the bottom of the convective zone.Although the tops of the thermal columns look like small granules, they are usually more than 1,000 kilometers (621 miles) across. Most thermal columns exist for about eight to 20 minutes before they dissolve and form new columns. There are also “supergranules” that can be up to 30,000 kilometers (18,641 miles) across, and last for up to 24 hours.Sunspots, solar flares, and solar prominences take form in the photosphere, although they are the result of processes and disruptions in other layers of the sun.Photosphere: SunspotsA sunspot is just what it sounds like—a dark spot on the sun. A sunspot forms when intense magnetic activity in the convective zone ruptures a thermal column. At the top of the ruptured column (visible in the photosphere), temperature is temporarily decreased because hot gases are not reaching it.Photosphere: Solar FlaresThe process of creating sunspots opens a connection between the corona (the very outer layer of the sun) and the sun’s interior. Solar matter surges out of this opening in formations called solar flares. These explosions are massive: In the period of a few minutes, solar flares release the equivalent of about 160 billion megatons of TNT, or about a sixth of the total energy the sun releases in one second.Clouds of ions, atoms, and electrons erupt from solar flares, and reach Earth in about two days. Solar flares and solar prominences contribute to space weather, which can cause disturbances to Earth’s atmosphere and magnetic field, as well as disrupt satellite and telecommunications systems.Photosphere: Coronal Mass EjectionsCoronal mass ejections (CMEs) are another type of solar activity caused by the constant movement and disturbances within the sun’s magnetic field. CMEs typically form near the active regions of sunspots, the correlation between the two has not been proven. The cause of CMEs is still being studied, and it is hypothesized that disruptions in either the photosphere or corona lead to these violent solar explosions.Photosphere: Solar ProminenceSolar prominences are bright loops of solar matter. They can burst far into the coronal layer of the sun, expanding hundreds of kilometers per second. These curved and twisted features can reach hundreds of thousands of kilometers in height and width, and last anywhere from a few days to a few months.Solar prominences are cooler than the corona, and they appear as darker strands against the sun. For this reason, they are also known as filaments.Photosphere: Solar CycleThe sun does not constantly emit sunspots and solar ejecta; it goes through a cycle of about 11 years. During this solar cycle, the frequency of solar flares changes. During solar maximums, there can be several flares per day. During solar minimums, there may be fewer than one a week.The solar cycle is defined by the sun’s magnetic fields, which loop around the sun and connect at the two poles. Every 11 years, the magnetic fields reverse, causing a disruption that leads to solar activity and sunspots.The solar cycle can have effects on Earth’s climate. For example, the sun’s ultraviolet light splits oxygen in the stratosphere and strengthens Earth’s protective ozone layer. During the solar minimum, there are low amounts of UV rays, which means that Earth’s ozone layer is temporarily thinned. This allows more UV rays to enter and heat Earth’s atmosphere.Solar AtmosphereThe solar atmosphere is the hottest region of the sun. It is made up of the chromosphere, the corona, and a transition zone called the solar transition region that connects the two.The solar atmosphere is obscured by the bright light emitted by the photosphere, and it can rarely be seen without special instruments. Only during solar eclipses, when the moon moves between Earth and the sun and hides the photosphere, can these layers be seen with the unaided eye.ChromosphereThe pinkish-red chromosphere is about 2,000 kilometers (1,250 miles) thick and riddled with jets of hot gas.At the bottom of the chromosphere, where it meets the photosphere, the sun is at its coolest, at about 4,400K (4,100°C, 7,500°F). This low temperature gives the chromosphere its pink color. The temperature in the chromosphere increases with altitude, and reaches 25,000K (25,000°C, 45,000°F) at the outer edge of the region.The chromosphere gives off jets of burning gases called spicules, similar to solar flares. These fiery wisps of gas reach out from the chromosphere like long, flaming fingers; they are usually about 500 kilometers (310 miles) in diameter. Spicules only last for about 15 minutes, but can reach thousands of kilometers in height before collapsing and dissolving.Solar Transition RegionThe solar transition region (STR) separates the chromosphere from the corona.Below the STR, the layers of the sun are controlled and stay separate because of gravity, gas pressure, and the different processes of exchanging energy. Above the STR, the motion and shape of the layers are much more dynamic. They are dominated by magnetic forces. These magnetic forces can put into action solar events such as coronal loops and the solar wind.The state of helium in these two regions has differences as well. Below the STR, helium is partially ionized. This means it has lost an electron, but still has one left. Around the STR, helium absorbs a bit more heat and loses its last electron. Its temperature soars to almost one million K (one million°C, 1.8 million°F).CoronaThe corona is the wispy outermost layer of the solar atmosphere, and can extend millions of kilometers into space. Gases in the corona burn at about one million K (one million°C, 1.8 million°F), and move about 145 kilometers (90 miles) per second.Some of the particles reach an escape velocity of 400 kilometers per second (249 miles per second). They escape the sun’s gravitational pull and become the solar wind. The solar wind blasts from the sun to the edge of the solar system.Other particles form coronal loops. Coronal loops are bursts of particles that curve back around to a nearby sunspot.Near the sun’s poles are coronal holes. These areas are colder and darker than other regions of the sun, and allow some of the fastest-moving parts of the solar wind to pass through.Solar WindThe solar wind is a stream of extremely hot, charged particles that are thrown out from the upper atmosphere of the sun. This means that every 150 million years, the sun loses a mass equal to that of Earth. However, even at this rate of loss, the sun has only lost about 0.01 percent of its total mass from solar wind.The solar wind blows in all directions. It continues moving at that speed for about 10 billion kilometers (six billion miles).Some of the particles in the solar wind slip through Earth’s magnetic field and into its upper atmosphere near the poles. As they collide with our planet's atmosphere, these charged particles set the atmosphere aglow with color, creating auroras, colorful light displays known as the Northern and Southern Lights. Solar winds can also cause solar storms. These storms can interfere with satellites and knock out power grids on Earth.The solar wind fills the heliosphere, the massive bubble of charged particles that encompasses the solar system.The solar wind eventually slows down near the border of the heliosphere, at a theoretical boundary called the heliopause. This boundary separates the matter and energy of our solar system from the matter in neighboring star systems and the interstellar medium.The interstellar medium is the space between star systems. The solar wind, having traveled billions of kilometers, cannot extend beyond the interstellar medium.Studying the SunThe sun has not always been a subject of scientific discovery and inquiry. For thousands of years, the sun was known in cultures all over the world as a god, a goddess, and a symbol of life.To the ancient Aztecs, the sun was a powerful deity known as Tonatiuh, who required human sacrifice to travel across the sky. In Baltic mythology, the sun was a goddess named Saule, who brought fertility and health. Chinese mythology held that the sun is the only remaining of 10 sun gods.In 150 B.C.E., Greek scholar Claudius Ptolemy created a geocentric model of the solar system in which the moon, planets, and sun revolved around Earth. It was not until the 16th century that Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus used mathematical and scientific reasoning to prove that planets rotated around the sun. This heliocentric model is the one we use today.In the 17th century, the telescope allowed people to examine the sun in detail. The sun is much too bright to allow us to study it with our eyes unprotected. With a telescope, it was possible for the first time to project a clear image of the sun onto a screen for examination.English scientist Sir Isaac Newton used a telescope and prism to scatter the light of the sun, and proved that sunlight was actually made of a spectrum of colors.In 1800, infrared and ultraviolet light were discovered to exist just outside of the visible spectrum. An optical instrument called a spectroscope made it possible to separate visible light and other electromagnetic radiation into its various wavelengths. Spectroscopy also helped scientists identify gases in the sun’s atmosphere—each element has its own wavelength pattern.However, the method by which the sun generated its energy remained a mystery. Many scientists hypothesized that the sun was contracting, and emitting heat from that process.In 1868, English astronomer Joseph Norman Lockyer was studying the sun’s electromagnetic spectrum. He observed bright lines in the photosphere that did not have a wavelength of any known element on Earth. He guessed that there was an element isolated on the sun, and named it helium after the Greek sun god, Helios.Over the next 30 years, astronomers concluded that the sun had a hot, pressurized core that was capable of producing massive amounts of energy through nuclear fusion.Technology continued to improve and allowed scientists to uncover new features of the sun. Infrared telescopes were invented in the 1960s, and scientists observed energy outside the visible spectrum. Twentieth-century astronomers used balloons and rockets to send specialized telescopes high above Earth, and examined the sun without any interference from Earth's atmosphere.Solrad 1 was the first spacecraft designed to study the sun, and was launched by the United States in 1960. That decade, NASA sent five Pioneer satellites to orbit the sun and collect information about the star.In 1980, NASA launched a mission during the solar maximum to gather information about the high-frequency gamma rays, UV rays, and x-rays that are emitted during solar flares.The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) was developed in Europe and put into orbit in 1996 to collect information. SOHO has been successfully collecting data and forecasting space weather for 12 years.Voyager 1 and 2 are spacecraft traveling to the edge of the heliosphere to discover what the atmosphere is made of where solar wind meets the interstellar medium. Voyager 1 crossed this boundary in 2012 and Voyager 2 did so in 2018.Another development in the study of the sun is helioseismology, the study of solar waves. The turbulence of the convective zone is hypothesized to contribute to solar waves that continuously transmit solar material to the outer layers of the sun. By studying these waves, scientists understand more about the sun’s interior and the cause of solar activity.Energy from the SunPhotosynthesis Sunlight provides necessary light and energy to plants and other producers in the food web. These producers absorb the sun’s radiation and convert it into energy through a process called photosynthesis.Producers are mostly plants (on land) and algae (in aquatic regions). They are the foundation of the food web, and their energy and nutrients are passed on to every other living organism.Fossil FuelsPhotosynthesis is also responsible for all of the fossil fuels on Earth. Scientists estimate that about three billion years ago, the first producers evolved in aquatic settings. Sunlight allowed plant life to thrive and adapt. After the plants died, they decomposed and shifted deeper into the earth, sometimes thousands of meters. This process continued for millions of years.Under intense pressure and high temperatures, these remains became what we know as fossil fuels. These microorganisms became petroleum, natural gas, and coal.People have developed processes for extracting these fossil fuels and using them for energy. However, fossil fuels are a nonrenewable resource. They take millions of years to form.Solar Energy TechnologySolar energy technology harnesses the sun’s radiation and converts it into heat, light, or electricity.Solar energy is a renewable resource, and many technologies can harvest it directly for use in homes, businesses, schools, and hospitals. Some solar energy technologies include solar voltaic cells and panels, solar thermal collectors, solar thermal electricity, and solar architecture.Photovoltaics use the sun’s energy to speed up electrons in solar cells and generate electricity. This form of technology has been used widely, and can provide electricity for rural areas, large power stations, buildings, and smaller devices such as parking meters and trash compactors.The sun’s energy can also be harnessed by a method called “concentrated solar power,” in which the sun’s rays are reflected and magnified by mirrors and lenses. The intensified ray of sunlight heats a fluid, which creates steam and powers an electric generator.Solar power can also be collected and distributed without machinery or electronics. For example, roofs can be covered with vegetation or painted white to decrease the amount of heat absorbed into the building, thereby decreasing the amount of electricity needed for air conditioning. This is solar architecture.Sunlight is abundant: In one hour, Earth’s atmosphere receives enough sunlight to power the electricity needs of all people for a year. However, solar technology is expensive, and depends on sunny and cloudless local weather to be effective. Methods of harnessing the sun’s energy are still being developed and improved. Fast Fact Like a Diamond in the SkyWhite dwarf stars are made of crystallized carbon diamond. A typical white dwarf is about 10 billion trillion trillion carats. In about five billion years, says Travis Metcalfe of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, our sun will become a diamond that truly is forever. Fast Fact Solar ConstantThe solar constant is the average amount of solar energy reaching Earth's atmosphere. The solar constant is about 1.37 kilowatts of electricity per square meter. Fast Fact Solarmax2013 will bring the next solar maximum (solarmax), a period astronomers say will bring more solar flares, coronal mass ejections, solar storms, and auroras. Fast Fact Sun is the Loneliest NumberThe sun is pretty isolated, way out on the inner rim of the Orion Arm of the Milky Way. Its nearest stellar neighbor, a red dwarf named Proxima Centauri, is about 4.24 light-years away. Fast Fact Sunny Days at Space AgenciesNASA and other space agencies have more than a dozen heliophysics missions, which study the sun, heliosphere, and planetary environments as a single connected system. A few of the ongoing missions are:ACE: observing particles of solar, interplanetary, interstellar, and galactic originsAIM: determining the causes of the highest-altitude clouds in Earths atmosphereHinode: studying the sun with the worlds highest-resolution solar telescopesIBEX: mapping the entire boundary of the solar systemRHESSI: researching gamma rays and X-rays, the most powerful energy emitted by the sunSOHO: understanding the structure and dynamics of the sunSDO: a crown jewel of NASA, aimed at developing the scientific understanding necessary to address those aspects of the sun and solar system that directly affect life and societySTEREO: understanding coronal mass ejectionsVoyager: studying space at the edge of the solar systemWind: understanding the solar wind The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited. February 2, 2024 For information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. They will best know the preferred format. When you reach out to them, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource. If a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media. Text on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service. Any interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. You cannot download interactives. National Geographic Headquarters 1145 17th Street NW Washington, DC 20036 National Geographic Society is a 501 (c)(3) organization. © 1996 - 2024 National Geographic Society. All rights reserved.\n",
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      "URL: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-earthscience/chapter/the-sun-and-the-earth-moon-system/\n",
      "Text content: The solar system is made up of the Sun, the planets that orbit the Sun, their satellites, dwarf planets and many, many small objects, like asteroids and comets. All of these objects move and we can see these movements. We notice the Sun rises in the eastern sky in the morning and sets in the western sky in the evening. We observe different stars in the sky at different times of the year. When ancient people made these observations, they imagined that the sky was actually moving while the Earth stood still. In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus (Figure 24.21) proposed a radically different idea: the Earth and the other planets make regular revolutions around the Sun. He also suggested that the Earth rotates once a day on its axis. Copernicus’ idea slowly gained acceptance and today we base our view of motions in the solar system on his work. We also now know that everything in the universe is moving. Figure 24.21: Nicholas Copernicus. In this lesson you will learn about how the movements of the Earth, Moon, and Sun affect different phenomena on Earth, including day and night, the seasons, tides, and phases of the Moon. Earlier we discussed Earth’s rotation and revolution. The Earth rotates once on its axis about every 24 hours. If you were to look at Earth from the North Pole, it would be spinning counterclockwise. As the Earth rotates, observers on Earth see the Sun moving across the sky from east to west with the beginning of each new day. We often say that the Sun is “rising” or “setting”, but actually it is the Earth’s rotation that gives us the perception of the Sun rising up or setting over the horizon. When we look at the Moon or the stars at night, they also seem to rise in the east and set in the west. Earth’s rotation is also responsible for this. As Earth turns, the Moon and stars change position in our sky. Another effect of Earth’s rotation is that we have a cycle of daylight and darkness approximately every 24 hours. This is called a day. As Earth rotates, the side of Earth facing the Sun experiences daylight, and the opposite side (facing away from the Sun) experiences darkness or nighttime. Since the Earth completes one rotation in about 24 hours, this is the time it takes to complete one day-night cycle. As the Earth rotates, different places on Earth experience sunset and sunrise at a different time. As you move towards the poles, summer and winter days have different amounts of daylight hours in a day. For example, in the Northern hemisphere, we begin summer on June 21. At this point, the Earth’s North Pole is pointed directly toward the Sun. Therefore, areas north of the equator experience longer days and shorter nights because the northern half of the Earth is pointed toward the Sun. Since the southern half of the Earth is pointed away from the Sun at that point, they have the opposite effect—longer nights and shorter days. For people in the Northern hemisphere, winter begins on December 21. At this point, it is Earth’s South Pole that is tilted toward the Sun, and so there are shorter days and longer nights for those who are north of the equator. It is a common misconception that summer is warm and winter is cold because the Sun is closer to Earth in the summer and farther away from it during the winter. Remember that seasons are caused by the 23.5 degree tilt of Earth’s axis of rotation and Earth’s yearly revolution around the Sun (Figure 24.22). This results in one part of the Earth being more directly exposed to rays from the Sun than the other part. The part tilted away from the Sun experiences a cool season, while the part tilted toward the Sun experiences a warm season. Seasons change as the Earth continues its revolution, causing the hemisphere tilted away from or towards the Sun to change accordingly. When it is winter in the Northern hemisphere, it is summer in the Southern hemisphere, and vice versa. Figure 24.22: The Earth’s tilt on its axis leads to one hemisphere facing the Sun more than the other hemisphere and gives rise to seasons. NORTHERN HEMISPHERE SUMMER The North Pole is tilted towards the Sun and the Sun’s rays strike the Northern Hemisphere more directly in summer. At the summer solstice, June 21 or 22, the Sun’s rays hit the Earth most directly along the Tropic of Cancer (23.5 degrees N); that is, the angle of incidence of the sun’s rays there is zero (the angle of incidence is the deviation in the angle of an incoming ray from straight on). When it is summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere. NORTHERN HEMISPHERE WINTER Winter solstice for the Northern Hemisphere happens on December 21 or 22. The tilt of Earth’s axis points away from the Sun. Light from the Sun is spread out over a larger area, so that area isn’t heated as much. With fewer daylight hours in winter, there is also less time for the Sun to warm the area. When it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere, it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere. EQUINOX Halfway between the two solstices, the Sun’s rays shine most directly at the equator, called an “equinox.” The daylight and nighttime hours are exactly equal on an equinox. The autumnal equinox happens on September 22 or 23 and the vernal or spring equinox happens March 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere. A solar eclipse occurs when the new moon passes directly between the Earth and the Sun (Figure 24.23). This casts a shadow on the Earth and blocks our view of the Sun. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon’s shadow completely blocks the Sun (Figure 24.24). When only a portion of the Sun is out of view, it is called a partial solar eclipse. Solar eclipses are rare events that usually only last a few minutes. That is because the Moon’s shadow only covers a very small area on Earth and Earth is turning very rapidly. As the Sun is covered by the moon’s shadow, it will actually get cooler outside. Birds may begin to sing, and stars will become visible in the sky. During a solar eclipse, the corona and solar prominences can be seen. Figure 24.23: A solar eclipse. Figure 24.24: Photo of a total solar eclipse. The corona is the white region surrounding the Sun. A lunar eclipse occurs when the full moon moves through the shadow of the Earth (Figure 24.25). This can only happen when the Earth is between the Moon and the Sun and all three are lined up in the same plane, called the ecliptic. The ecliptic is the plane of Earth’s orbit around the Sun. The Earth’s shadow has two distinct parts: the umbra and the penumbra. The umbra is the inner, cone shaped part of the shadow, in which all of the light has been blocked. The outer part of Earth’s shadow is the penumbra where only part of the light is blocked. In the penumbra, the light is dimmed but not totally absent. A total lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon travels completely in Earth’s umbra. During a partial lunar eclipse, only a portion of the Moon enters Earth’s umbra. A penumbral eclipse happens when the Moon passes through Earth’s penumbra. The Earth’s shadow is quite large, so a lunar eclipse lasts for hours and can be seen by anyone with a view of the Moon at the time of the eclipse. Figure 24.25: The formation of a lunar eclipse. Partial lunar eclipses occur at least twice a year, but total lunar eclipses are less common. The next total lunar eclipse will occur December 21, 2010. The moon glows with a dull red coloring during a total lunar eclipse. The Moon does not produce any light of its own—it only reflects light from the Sun. As the Moon moves around the Earth, we see different parts of the near side of the Moon illuminated by the Sun. This causes the changes in the shape of the Moon that we notice on a regular basis, called the phases of the Moon. As the Moon revolves around Earth, the illuminated portion of the near side of the Moon will change from fully lit to completely dark and back again. A full moon is the lunar phase seen when the whole of the Moon’s lit side is facing Earth. This phase happens when Earth is between the Moon and the Sun. About one week later, the Moon enters the quarter-moon phase. At this point, the Moon appears as a half-circle, since only half of the Moon’s lit surface is visible from Earth. When the Moon moves between Earth and the Sun, the side facing Earth is completely dark. This is called the new moon phase, and we do not usually see the Moon at this point. Sometimes you can just barely make out the outline of the new moon in the sky. This is because some sunlight reflects off the Earth and hits the moon. Before and after the quarter-moon phases are the gibbous and crescent phases. During the gibbous moon phase, the moon is more than half lit but not full. During the crescent moon phase, the moon is less than half lit and is seen as only a sliver or crescent shape. It takes about 29.5 days for the Moon to revolve around Earth and go through all the phases (Figure 24.26). Figure 24.26: The phases of the Moon. Note that the Sun would be above the top of this picture, and thus, the Sun’s rays would be directed downward. Tides are the regular rising and falling of Earth’s surface water in response to gravitational attraction from the Moon and Sun. The Moon’s gravity causes the oceans to bulge out in the direction of the Moon. In other words, the Moon’s gravity is pulling upwards on Earth’s water, producing a high tide. On the other side of the Earth, there is another high tide area, produced where the Moon’s pull is weakest. As the Earth rotates on its axis, the areas directly in line with the Moon will experience high tides. Each place on Earth experiences changes in the height of the water throughout the day as it changes from high tide to low tide. There are two high tides and two low tides each tidal day. Figure 24.27 and Figure 24.28 will help you better understand how tides work. Figure 24.27: A spring tide. Figure 24.28: A neap tide. The first picture shows what is called a spring tide. Confusingly, this tide has nothing to do with the season “Spring”, but means that the tide waters seem to spring forth. During a spring tide, the Sun and Moon are in line. This happens at both the new moon and the full moon. The Sun’s gravity pulls on Earth’s water, while the Moon’s gravity pulls on the water in the same places. The high tide produced by Sun adds to the high tide produced by the Moon. So spring tides have higher than normal high tides. This water is shown on the picture as the gray bulges on opposite sides of the Earth. Notice that perpendicular to the gray areas, the water is at a relatively low level. The places where the water is being pulled out experience high tides, while the areas perpendicular to them experience low tides. Since the Earth is rotating on its axis, the high-low tide cycle moves around the globe in a 24-hour period. The second picture shows a neap tide. A neap tide occurs when the Earth and Sun are in line but the Moon is perpendicular to the Earth. This happens when the moon is at first or last quarter moon phase. In this case, the pull of gravity from the Sun partially cancels out the pull of gravity from the Moon, and the tides are less pronounced. Neap tides produce less extreme tides than the normal tides. This is because the high tide produced by the Sun adds to the low tide area of the Moon and vice versa. So high tide is not as high and low tide is not as low as it usually might be.\n",
      "\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# Search Google for the query\n",
    "search_results = search_google(query, number_of_results)\n",
    "\n",
    "# Fetch articles and extract text content\n",
    "google_search_data = {}\n",
    "for url in search_results:\n",
    "    article_text = fetch_articles(url)\n",
    "    if article_text:\n",
    "        google_search_data[url] = clean_spaces_text(article_text)\n",
    "        print(\"URL:\", url)\n",
    "        print(\"Text content:\", clean_spaces_text(article_text))\n",
    "        print()\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 5,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[{'title': 'Conspiracy Theorists Are Now Claiming The Earth Has Two Suns', 'media': 'BroBible', 'date': '6 hours ago', 'datetime': datetime.datetime(2024, 5, 2, 19, 41, 15, 596805), 'desc': \"The latest wild conspiracy theory making the rounds on the internet is that there is not just one, but two suns in Earth's solar system.\", 'link': 'https://brobible.com/culture/article/conspiracy-theorists-earth-has-two-suns/&ved=2ahUKEwjY6Yuj4--FAxVX3TgGHVwdBaEQxfQBegQIAhAC&usg=AOvVaw14nJA82jF1PUSFknWRsjws', 'img': 'data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAP///////yH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw=='}, {'title': 'Radio communication disappeared on Earth due to a solar flare', 'media': 'The Universe Space Tech', 'date': '1 hours ago', 'datetime': datetime.datetime(2024, 5, 3, 0, 41, 15, 600501), 'desc': 'On May 1, an extremely powerful solar flare occurred on the Sun, which led to a large-scale radio blackout throughout the Pacific region.', 'link': 'https://universemagazine.com/en/powerful-solar-flare-left-earth-without-radio-communication-for-30-minutes/&ved=2ahUKEwjY6Yuj4--FAxVX3TgGHVwdBaEQxfQBegQICRAC&usg=AOvVaw3uwJVNsKLZomhwYg8tQMkA', 'img': 'data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAP///////yH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw=='}, {'title': 'Moderate solar flare eruption on Sun causes brief radio blackout on Earth', 'media': 'News9live', 'date': '2 hours ago', 'datetime': datetime.datetime(2024, 5, 2, 23, 41, 15, 601507), 'desc': 'A moderate solar flare has been observed erupting on the Sun. The flare caused a brief high frequency radio blackout. The region on the Sun is expected to...', 'link': 'https://www.news9live.com/science/moderate-solar-flare-eruption-on-sun-causes-brief-radio-blackout-on-earth-2520701&ved=2ahUKEwjY6Yuj4--FAxVX3TgGHVwdBaEQxfQBegQIAxAC&usg=AOvVaw2XLN_lgm8qA5MutqTQSvhO', 'img': 'data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAP///////yH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw=='}, {'title': \"Peak solar activity sparks unprecedented 'global auroras' on Mars\", 'media': 'The Independent', 'date': '2 hours ago', 'datetime': datetime.datetime(2024, 5, 2, 23, 41, 15, 602564), 'desc': 'Red planet experiencing greatest level of auroral activity in 10 years.', 'link': 'https://www.independent.co.uk/space/solar-activity-northern-lights-auroras-mars-b2538346.html&ved=2ahUKEwjY6Yuj4--FAxVX3TgGHVwdBaEQxfQBegQIARAC&usg=AOvVaw2vtTzp2chvTJcyWsyOTI4P', 'img': 'data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAP///////yH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw=='}, {'title': 'Earth to be hit by solar storm after four huge explosions on Sun', 'media': 'Yahoo News UK', 'date': '1 day ago', 'datetime': datetime.datetime(2024, 5, 2, 1, 41, 15, 607575), 'desc': \"The Earth could suffer impacts after four massive explosions were observed on the Sun this week. NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) captured the rare...\", 'link': 'https://uk.news.yahoo.com/earth-hit-solar-storm-four-111215485.html&ved=2ahUKEwjY6Yuj4--FAxVX3TgGHVwdBaEQxfQBegQIBBAC&usg=AOvVaw2QwN6yb3O-UMUdfKWyZxz_', 'img': 'data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAP///////yH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw=='}, {'title': 'Mars missions prepare for intense solar storms on the Red Planet', 'media': 'Earth.com', 'date': '1 day ago', 'datetime': datetime.datetime(2024, 5, 2, 1, 41, 15, 614774), 'desc': 'As the Sun enters a period of peak activity known as solar maximum, scientists are gearing up to study how solar storms could impact future space...', 'link': 'https://www.earth.com/news/mars-missions-prepare-intense-solar-storms-coming-red-planet/&ved=2ahUKEwjY6Yuj4--FAxVX3TgGHVwdBaEQxfQBegQIABAC&usg=AOvVaw0THpuI2XeytOqVEN4NxX7B', 'img': 'data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAP///////yH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw=='}, {'title': 'Studying The Impact Of Solar Storms At Mars - Astrobiology', 'media': 'the Astrobiology Web', 'date': '2 days ago', 'datetime': datetime.datetime(2024, 5, 1, 1, 41, 15, 621743), 'desc': 'The Sun will be at peak activity this year, providing a rare opportunity to study how solar storms and radiation could affect future astronauts on the Red...', 'link': 'https://astrobiology.com/2024/04/studying-the-impact-of-solar-storms-at-mars.html&ved=2ahUKEwjY6Yuj4--FAxVX3TgGHVwdBaEQxfQBegQIBRAC&usg=AOvVaw3kWXURcFiz_aGNrkzdGmFB', 'img': 'data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAP///////yH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw=='}, {'title': 'Moon did block sun during total solar eclipse', 'media': 'Full Fact', 'date': '2 days ago', 'datetime': datetime.datetime(2024, 5, 1, 1, 41, 15, 627270), 'desc': 'A false claim that it was not the moon that blocked the sun during the 2024 full solar eclipse has been widely shared online.', 'link': 'https://fullfact.org/online/moon-did-not-cause-solar-eclipse-false/&ved=2ahUKEwjY6Yuj4--FAxVX3TgGHVwdBaEQxfQBegQICBAC&usg=AOvVaw1LWlm9TfUK6jrAHs3UnGIX', 'img': 'data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAP///////yH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw=='}, {'title': 'Backyard Universe: When is the next solar eclipse and lunar eclipse?', 'media': 'The Fayetteville Observer', 'date': '2 days ago', 'datetime': datetime.datetime(2024, 5, 1, 1, 41, 15, 632841), 'desc': \"As with all total solar eclipses, the first question asked afterward is, 'When and where can I go to see this again?'2 days ago\", 'link': 'https://www.fayobserver.com/story/lifestyle/2024/04/30/when-is-the-next-solar-eclipse-and-lunar-eclipse-in-the-united-states/73426716007/&ved=2ahUKEwjY6Yuj4--FAxVX3TgGHVwdBaEQxfQBegQIBhAC&usg=AOvVaw1wtyefYOPWu_j1lEyryGjm', 'img': 'data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAP///////yH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw=='}, {'title': 'PBS NewsHour | How a super-active sun can affect electronics on Earth | Season 2024', 'media': 'thinktv.org', 'date': '3 days ago', 'datetime': datetime.datetime(2024, 4, 30, 1, 41, 15, 639101), 'desc': \"The sun is super active right now. Here's how it can affect electronics on Earth.\", 'link': 'https://video.thinktv.org/video/solar-storms-1714329572/&ved=2ahUKEwjY6Yuj4--FAxVX3TgGHVwdBaEQxfQBegQIBxAC&usg=AOvVaw2wXGJuD9pEBSMK9BprTVQ9', 'img': 'data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAP///////yH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw=='}]\n",
      "['https://brobible.com/culture/article/conspiracy-theorists-earth-has-two-suns/', 'https://universemagazine.com/en/powerful-solar-flare-left-earth-without-radio-communication-for-30-minutes/', 'https://www.news9live.com/science/moderate-solar-flare-eruption-on-sun-causes-brief-radio-blackout-on-earth-2520701', 'https://www.independent.co.uk/space/solar-activity-northern-lights-auroras-mars-b2538346.html', 'https://uk.news.yahoo.com/earth-hit-solar-storm-four-111215485.html']\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# query = \"Election in india\"\n",
    "# number_of_results = 5\n",
    "\n",
    "# Search Google News for the query\n",
    "news_links = search_google_news(query, number_of_results)\n",
    "news_links = [clean_links(i) for i in news_links]\n",
    "print(news_links)\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 6,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "URL: https://brobible.com/culture/article/conspiracy-theorists-earth-has-two-suns/\n",
      "Text content: iStockphoto If you enjoy a good conspiracy theory then today is your lucky day as there are some people out there trying to convince others that the Earth has two suns. That’s right. It appears that this latest conspiracy theory has its origin, or at least has resurfaced, thanks to a Facebook group called Nibiru Followers Anonymous. If the term Nibiru sounds familiar that is because it also goes by the name Planet X (not to be confused with Earth X or the other Planet X) and it is supposedly going to slam into Earth at some point ending life as we know it. According to this conspiracy theory about the Earth having two suns, the reason we haven’t noticed that there are two suns is because one of them is hiding behind the other one. This is something they believe. Their proof of there being a second sun is that on occasion when looking at the sun there appears to be a ring or halo of light around it. That, they claim, is the light of the second sun. Of course, that’s pure nonsense. (Or is it?) According to the National Weather Service, “A halo is a ring or light that forms around the sun or moon as the sun or moon light refracts off ice crystals present in a thin veil of cirrus clouds. The halo is usually seen as a bright, white ring although sometimes it can have color.” IFL Science speculates that this conspiracy theory may stem from a 2016 live-stream conducted by astronomer Paul Cox. During the live-stream, Cox joked, “You may be asking yourself, what is that large round thing to the right of the sun? Well, that’s our second sun. I don’t know if you knew that we had a second sun. But there it is. It is normally hidden from view. NASA and other organizations usually hide that stuff away from us.” On the plus side, at least these Nibiru conspiracy theorists aren’t claiming that the world is about to come to an end… again.\n",
      "\n",
      "URL: https://universemagazine.com/en/powerful-solar-flare-left-earth-without-radio-communication-for-30-minutes/\n",
      "Text content: On May 1, an extremely powerful solar flare occurred on the Sun, which led to a large-scale radio blackout throughout the Pacific region. The flare peaked at 7:46 p.m. EDT (2346 GMT) and lasted 12 minutes. Flares on the Sun are a manifestation of magnetic energy that accumulates in its atmosphere and is then released in the form of intense bursts of electromagnetic radiation. They are divided by size into categories, the most powerful of which is X-class, followed by M-class, C-class, B-class and A-class. According to Spaceweatherlive.com, the flare on April 1 had a power of M9.53, which is slightly less than the X-class. The strength of the flare was measured by NASA’s GOES-16 satellite. Despite high sunspot numbers for the last couple of weeks, tonight’s near X-class #SolarFlare is the first decent-sized flare in some time! When and where will the next X-class event come from? #spaceweather pic.twitter.com/Thbrjy2XMy — Dr. Ryan French (@RyanJFrench) May 1, 2024 Powerful flares are often accompanied by short-wave radio blackouts, similar to what happened over the Pacific Ocean, due to pulses of X-ray and ultraviolet radiation. When this radiation reaches the Earth, it ionizes the upper layers of the atmosphere, which can lead to interference with the passage of high-frequency radio signals, causing a deterioration in the quality of communication or even its disappearance for a while. The flare on May 1 resulted in a loss of radio signal below the 20 MHz frequency within 30 minutes after the flare. The space event affected sailors and amateur radio operators throughout the Pacific region, who temporarily lost contact. Solar activity usually increases during the approach to the solar maximum, which occurs during about an 11-year cycle, as evidenced by the frequency of sunspots. The flare close to the X-class, which originated from the area of the AR3654 sunspot, became the most powerful in the entire history of observations from this region. Although solar flares can affect spacecraft and technology on Earth, fortunately their power is not enough to cause lasting harm to the planet. However, flares cause temporary inconveniences for those who are heavily dependent on radio communications. Therefore, organizations such as NASA, NOAA and the US Air Force Weather Agency monitor solar activity and send out warnings about possible consequences on time. There is no reason to panic. 😱Update Apr 30, 2024: Almost X flare!👏💥🤩It is always exciting when a sunspot region lives up to its potential. AR3654 has just done that. At 23:23 UTC on Apr 30, the region released a flare that almost made it to X with an M9.5. 🧐MORE at EarthSky: https://t.co/xD29wLfm4e pic.twitter.com/efGC1G2Rn8 Earlier, we reported on how extreme solar storms could disable traffic on the railway. According to space.com Follow us on Twitter to get the most interesting space news in timehttps://twitter.com/ust_magazine News Feed Editor When I got an encyclopedia about the Universe into my hands in my childhood. Enthusiastically read the materials of the popular science publication. I was especially surprised by such poorly studied objects as black holes, quasars, dark matter and dark energy. Every time I opened another book about space, I disappeared there for several hours, […] When using the site materials, be sure to provide a link within the first paragraph to the page with the original article indicating the brand of The Universe. Space. Tech ©2024 The Universe. Space. Tech\n",
      "\n",
      "URL: https://www.news9live.com/science/moderate-solar-flare-eruption-on-sun-causes-brief-radio-blackout-on-earth-2520701\n",
      "Text content: New Delhi: The Space Weather Prediction Centre (SWPC) of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has tracked a moderate solar flare, measuring M9.5 on the scale, erupting from a cluster of sunspots designated as active region (AR) 3654. Such events are frequent, and there is no cause for concern among the general public. The event took place on 30 April, 2024. There is also a ginormous filament snaking across the Sun in the central regions. The moderate flare event. (Image Credit: SWPC). Solar activity has been moderate with a few low-intensity solar flares. A long duration C5.8 solar flare was also observed on 1 May 2024, which was associated with a coronal mass ejection (CME). During such outbursts, material from the outer atmosphere of the Sun is carried forward through space, that carries a portion of the Sun’s massive geomagnetic field with it. These CMEs can induce geomagnetic storms when interacting with planetary magnetic fields. The SWPC has also put out an alert for a Geomagnetic K-index of 4, which is just short of a geomagnetic storm, but is considered a geomagnetic disturbance. Because of the geomagnetic storm, polar lights are expected to be visible at the high latitudes, with the possibility for weak power grid fluctuations. Solar flares are classified according to their intensity, going through the letters B, C, M and X. Each letter represents a ten-times increase in energy output. The letters are accompanied by a finer grained scale going from 0 to 9.9. There is no upper limit to the X category of flares. The moderate flare observed on 30 April, at M 9.5 would have been in the most intense category, if only it were a little more energetic. Geomagnetic storms are measured on a scale that foes from G1 to G5, which are for Minor, Moderate, Strong, Severe and Extreme storms. There are similar classifications for radio blackouts and solar radiation storms, with the scales going through R1 to R5, and S1 to S5. The K-index is also used for tracking geomagnetic disturbances, and goes through the numbers 0 to 9. A G1 geomagnetic storm corresponds to a K-index of 5.\n",
      "\n",
      "URL: https://www.independent.co.uk/space/solar-activity-northern-lights-auroras-mars-b2538346.html\n",
      "Text content: Please refresh the page or navigate to another page on the site to be automatically logged inPlease refresh your browser to be logged in Red planet experiencing greatest level of auroral activity in 10 years Find your bookmarks in your Independent Premium section, under my profile Mars has lately been experiencing “global auroras” of unprecedented scale as a result of increased solar activity. Auroras are caused when charged particles from the Sun interact with a planet’s magnetic field. On Earth, it is rare to see auroras with equal ease from the equator and the poles as the planet’s magnetic field largely shields it from solar storms. But since Mars lacks an Earth-like magnetic field, auroras on the red planet can be a global phenomenon. And the phenomenon appears to have grown more frequent now during a peak in the Sun’s activity called Solar Maximum that occurs roughly every 11 years. At Solar Maximum, the Sun is prone to releasing flares and coronal mass ejections. “Mars is experiencing its greatest level of auroral activity in the past 10 years,” Nick Schneider from the University of Colorado’s Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics told the website Space Weather. “In February alone, there were three episodes of global auroras, an ‘aurora hat-trick’ we’ve never seen before.” Nasa’s Maven spacecraft helped collect data on February’s glowing auroras on Mars. They were caused by the interaction of solar energetic particles, or SEPs, with the Martian atmosphere after being accelerated by shock waves within solar storms. “Mars is currently getting hit by roughly 1 to 2 CMEs every month, bringing a hefty supply of SEPs,” Rebecca Jolitz, a member of the Maven team at UC Berkeley, said. Astrophysicists have been trying to understand what could happen if a solar superstorm, such as the one the world experienced on 15 May 1921, struck Earth today. That storm led to fires breaking out across electricity and telegraph control rooms in several parts of the world, including the US and the UK. It remains unclear what damage such an outburst from the Sun could cause today. Studying auroras on Mars during Solar Maximum, which is largely unprotected by a magnetic field, could provide more insights, researchers said. “This will give us a chance to study how solar storms affect the atmosphere of Mars, a key goal of the Maven mission. It’s the kind of fun we’ve been waiting for!” Dr Schneider said. “I’d actually love to see the ‘big one’ at Mars this year, a large event that we can study to understand solar radiation better before astronauts go to Mars,” astrophysicist Shannon Curry, also from the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, said. Join thought-provoking conversations, follow other Independent readers and see their replies Representative image showing high energy particles from Sun impacting Mars Nasa Want to bookmark your favourite articles and stories to read or reference later? Start your Independent Premium subscription today. Please refresh the page or navigate to another page on the site to be automatically logged inPlease refresh your browser to be logged in Log in New to The Independent? Or if you would prefer: Want an ad-free experience?\n",
      "\n",
      "URL: https://uk.news.yahoo.com/earth-hit-solar-storm-four-111215485.html\n",
      "Text content: The Earth could suffer impacts after four massive explosions were observed on the Sun this week. NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) captured the rare event at around 3.30am on Tuesday. Four regions on the sun, separated by hundreds of thousands of kilometres, were seen exploding almost simultaneously. When solar CMEs (Coronal Mass Ejections) occur it can expel billions of tons of solar material into space at high speeds. When a CME interacts with Earth's magnetosphere, it may cause geomagnetic storms. These storms can disrupt satellite communications, radio signals, and power grids on Earth. They also produce stunning auroras (northern and southern lights) near the poles. This week's blasts were on a trajectory south of Earth, but could affect our magnetic field, sparking a G1-class geomagnetic storm. Space-watchers suggest potential impacts from the CMEs could begin today (Thursday). NASA's SDO is a spacecraft mission to observe the Sun’s dynamics to \"increase understanding of the nature and sources of solar variability\". SDO documents the outer atmosphere of the Sun - called the corona - as well as hot flare plasma. Blurred Out The China National Space Administration (CNSA) has shown off a CGI video of its vision of a lunar base, a vastly ambitious plan the country is hoping to realize in a matter of decades. The showy, albeit already dated-looking render shows plans for the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) a Chinese and Russian […] The Met Office said 'sunnier conditions are expected' Great opportunity The UK has been hit by a cold and wet April, but gardeners are being urged to hold off on mowing their lawns until a certain date in July at the earliest Up to 50mm of rain in the space of a few hours is expected to fall in parts of Wales as storms batter the country Rare near-Earth asteroid Kamo’oalewa may have been created several million years ago when something slammed into the moon and sent a chunk of it flying into space. Fight in over 2000 unique and authentic Vehicles. Fight on Land, on Water and in the Air. Join the most comprehensive vehicular combat game. Over... China’s new mission could answer longstanding questions about the Moon. A woman was left 'hysterical' after discovering a South American marmoset monkey in her conservatory at her home. Gray whale’s injuries said to be consistent with blunt force trauma Russia has circulated a U.N. resolution calling on all countries to take urgent action to prevent putting weapons in outer space “for all time” a week after it vetoed a U.S.-Japan resolution to stop an arms race in space. The Russian draft resolution, obtained Wednesday by The Associated Press, goes further than the U.S.-Japan proposal, not only calling for efforts to stop weapons from being deployed in outer space but for preventing “the threat or use of force in outer space,” also “for all time.” It says this should include deploying weapons “from space against Earth, and from Earth against objects in outer space.” Toasty Times The Sun is ramping up, which could be a boon for our hopes of exploring Mars on foot — depending on what scientists find. In preparation for a potential manned mission to the Red Planet, NASA scientists will be closely watching how the Sun's peak of volatile activity affects the Martian surface and, […] The threat of thunderstorms comes as many parts have been enjoying a short period of sunny weather. Red planet experiencing greatest level of auroral activity in 10 years STORY: What if the carbon dioxide and methane that this landfill emits could power an airplane......and reduce greenhouse gas emissions at the same time? Australian researchers say they’ve come up with a way to do just that.And it could help the aviation industry meet its net-zero carbon emissions target by 2050.\"I think the impact is very significant because unusually you have a win-win approach here.\"This is PJ Cullen, a chemical engineering professor at the University of Sydney.He says he's developed a method that takes greenhouse gases - like CO2 and methane - and converts them into fuel through a chemical process using plasma.\"In one sense, we have this idea that we're going to be capturing emissions that are coming from landfill. On the other, we have a sector that really needs a new technology in order to become more sustainable. The aviation industry accounts for approximately three percent of the world's emissions. So clearly, you cannot get to net zero without producing some sustainable solutions.\"Sustainable aviation fuel is typically five times more expensive than traditional jet fuel.Cullen is hoping that will change with the new process.\"We're able to take cheap or maybe even free electricity through a conversion process and produce useful chemicals.\"Meanwhile, the methane being used in the process also helps solve another key issue in sustainability:Methane emissions from human activities have driven about a third of the rise in global temperatures since the industrial revolution.Richard Kirkman is the CEO of waste management company Veolia for Australia and New Zealand.He thinks all of Australia's waste could one day be converted into energy.\"All the household waste, all the biowaste, all the sludges from water treatment – you can convert it into energy. That can supplement about 10 percent of Australia’s energy supply. That’s a massive amount in terms of mitigating climate change. // This site produces 2 million cubes of methane every year and that’s enough to make 500,000 barbecue gas bottles. That’s a lot of sausage.”Cullen says the new method still needs to be scaled and incorporated into established workflows.“What's good about the process is actually it's very consistent so we can model how much gas will be coming off with these landfills per year.\" It was back to northerly winds this morning where I live in the Fens, so much so that I had to go back upstairs and put on a thermal vest before venturing outside. But that’s not the impression you would have got from the weather map on last night’s BBC weather forecast. 50% Avg Salary Hike | Featuring Modules on ChatGPT, Generative AI & Prompt Engineering Mountain tourism brings revenues to Nepal but leaves a mess behind. Local and international groups are offering new cleanup strategies. The weather is set to change dramatically in the middle of May as mild temperatures are banished by a bleak outlook - with the fifth month of the year set to be a WASHOUT Met Office Weather 2nd May The non-venomous snakes are a \"lynchpin species in the longleaf pine ecosystem,\" which Florida experts are working to restore Winding through the South Carolina low country, the Cooper River is a reed-lined haven for sportfish and shorebirds. The waterway originates in Berkeley County's Lake Moultrie. From there, it proceeds all the way down to Charleston, where it merges with the Ashley and the Wando to form that city's world-famous harbor. (Ever hear of Fort Sumter?) DOG owners have been warned of potentially fatal toxic waters.\n",
      "\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "google_news_data = {}\n",
    "\n",
    "# Fetch articles and extract text content\n",
    "for url in news_links:\n",
    "    article_text = fetch_articles(url)\n",
    "    if article_text:\n",
    "        google_news_data[url] = clean_spaces_text(article_text) \n",
    "        print(\"URL:\", url)\n",
    "        print(\"Text content:\", clean_spaces_text(article_text))\n",
    "        print()\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 8,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "translator = Translator()\n",
    "for i in google_news_data:\n",
    "    if contains_hindi(google_news_data[i]):\n",
    "        print(\"Contains hindi\")\n",
    "        try :\n",
    "            google_news_data[i] = translator.translate(google_news_data[i], dest=\"en\")\n",
    "        except Exception as e:\n",
    "            print(\"Error translating. Error :\", e)\n",
    "            \n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 9,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "contains hindi !\n",
      "Contains hindi\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "translator = Translator()\n",
    "for i in google_search_data:\n",
    "    if contains_hindi(google_search_data[i]):\n",
    "        print(\"Contains hindi\")\n",
    "        try :\n",
    "            google_search_data[i] = translator.translate(google_search_data[i], dest=\"en\")\n",
    "        except Exception as e:\n",
    "            print(\"Error translating. Error :\", e)\n",
    "            \n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 18,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "testing_dict = {\"xyz\": \"हैलो, कैसे हो भाई ?. all good ?\"}"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 7,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "contains hindi !\n",
      "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun - Contains Hindi\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "translate_hindi_to_english(google_news_data)\n",
    "translate_hindi_to_english(google_search_data)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 16,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "{'xyz': 'Hello, how are you brother? all good?'}"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 16,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "testing_dict"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 8,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(5, 7)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 8,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "len(google_news_data), len(google_search_data)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 4,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "WARNING:tensorflow:From e:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\keras\\src\\losses.py:2976: The name tf.losses.sparse_softmax_cross_entropy is deprecated. Please use tf.compat.v1.losses.sparse_softmax_cross_entropy instead.\n",
      "\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "from transformers import AutoTokenizer, AutoModelForCausalLM, AutoModelForQuestionAnswering, AutoModelForSeq2SeqLM\n",
    "from transformers import pipeline, set_seed\n",
    "from transformers import T5Tokenizer, T5ForConditionalGeneration\n",
    "import torch\n",
    "from langchain.text_splitter import RecursiveCharacterTextSplitter\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 4,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "device = torch.device(f\"cuda:{0}\" if torch.cuda.is_available() else \"cpu\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 5,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "\n",
    "translate_tokenizer = AutoTokenizer.from_pretrained(\"google/flan-t5-large\")\n",
    "translate_model = T5ForConditionalGeneration.from_pretrained(\"google/flan-t5-large\").to(device)\n",
    "\n",
    "# translate_model = AutoModelForSeq2SeqLM.from_pretrained(\"google/flan-t5-large\").to(device)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 15,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def translate_eng(text, verbose = False):\n",
    "    prompt = f\"Translate this text to English language : {text} \"\n",
    "    print(\"Given text :\", text)\n",
    "    input_ids = translate_tokenizer(prompt,\n",
    "                                    return_tensors=\"pt\",\n",
    "                                    # padding=True,\n",
    "                                    # truncation=True,\n",
    "                                    ).to(translate_model.device).input_ids\n",
    "    outputs = translate_model.generate(input_ids, \n",
    "                                       max_new_tokens = 512)\n",
    "    model_translation = translate_tokenizer.decode(outputs[0])\n",
    "    return model_translation"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 5,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'मेरा शहर Link Copied रहें हर खबर से अपडेट, डाउनलोड करें Android Hindi News App, iOS Hindi News App और Amarujala Hindi News APP अपने मोबाइल पे|Get all India News in Hindi related to live update of politics, sports, entertainment, technology and education etc. Stay updated with us for all breaking news from India News and more news in Hindi. Next Article Please wait... Please wait... Delete All Cookies Followed news.google.com/articles/CBMiiQFodHRwczovL25kdHYuaW4vaW5kaWEvbG9rLXNhYmhhLWVsZWN0aW9uLTIwMjQtc2Vjb25kLXBoYXNlLXZvdGluZy1pcy1zaW1pbGFyLXRvLXRoZS1maXJzdC1waGFzZS13aGF0LWlzLXRoZS1tZWFuaW5nLW9mLXRoaXMtdHJlbmQtNTUzMDc0M9IBjwFodHRwczovL25kdHYuaW4vaW5kaWEvbG9rLXNhYmhhLWVsZWN0aW9uLTIwMjQtc2Vjb25kLXBoYXNlLXZvdGluZy1pcy1zaW1pbGFyLXRvLXRoZS1maXJzdC1waGFzZS13aGF0LWlzLXRoZS1tZWFuaW5nLW9mLXRoaXMtdHJlbmQtNTUzMDc0My9hbXAvMQ?hl=hi&gl=IN&ceid=IN%3Ahi Articles : लोकसभा चुनाव 2024 (Lok Sabha Election 2024) के दूसरे चरण में शुक्रवार को 13 राज्यों और केंद्र शासित प्रदेशों की 88 सीटों पर मतदान हुए. हालांकि चुनाव को लेकर उत्साह शाम को आए वोटिंग प्रतिशत ने कम कर दिया. इस बार का वोटिंग ट्रेंड पहले चरण के चुनाव से भी खराब रहा. दूसरे चरण में महज 63.00 प्रतिशत मतदाताओं ने ही अपने मताधिकार का प्रयोग किया, जबकि 2019 में इन्हीं सीटों पर 70 फीसदी से ज्यादा लोगों ने बढ़-चढ़कर वोट किया था. कम होते इस वोटिंग प्रतिशत ने सभी राजनीतिक दलों का गणित बिगाड़ दिया है. पहले चरण में 21 राज्यों की 102 लोकसभा सीटों पर 64 प्रतिशत वोट डाले गए थे. पिछले चुनाव में उन सीटों पर भी 70 प्रतिशत से ज्यादा मतदान हुए थे. यही हाल दूसरे चरण में भी रहा. किसी भी राज्य में मतदान का आंकड़ा 80 फीसदी को पार नहीं कर सका. वोटिंग कम होने से बढ़ी राजनीतिक दलों के साथ चुनाव आयोग की भी चिंता वोट करने के लिए लोगों के घरों से बाहर नहीं निकलने को लेकर राजनीतिक दलों को साथ-साथ चुनाव आयोग की भी चिंता बढ़ा दी है. खासकर हिंदी भाषी राज्यों में तो मतदाता वोटिंग को लेकर जैसे नीरस हो गए हैं. इससे पहले 2014 और 2019 में अच्छी-खासी तादाद में लोगों ने वोट किया था, लेकिन इस बार मतदाताओं में वो जोश देखने को नहीं मिल रहा है. Photo Credit: Twitter - election commission यूपी में दोनों चरणों में वोटिंग कम उत्तर प्रदेश में सबसे ज्यादा 80 लोकसभा की सीटें हैं, लेकिन वहां के वोटरों में चुनाव को लेकर उत्साह नहीं दिख रहा है. पहले चरण में जहां 57 प्रतिशत वोट पड़े, वहीं दूसरे चरण में महज 54.8 फीसदी लोगों ने अपने मताधिकार का प्रयोग किया. जानकारों का मानना है कि किसके पक्ष में ज्यादा वोट गया है ये इस इस ट्रेंड से निकालना काफी मुश्किल है. उत्तर भारत में गर्म मौसम भी वजह! पूरे उत्तर भारत में इन दिनों मौसम का तापमान काफी बढ़ गया है. लू और गर्म हवाओं ने लोगों का जीवन अस्त-व्यस्त किया हुआ है. लोगों के वोट करने को लेकर घर से बाहर नहीं निकलने की ये भी एक वजह बताई जा रही है. वहीं चुनाव में विपक्षी पार्टियों की कम सक्रियता से भी कम वोटिंग प्रतिशत को जोड़कर देखा जा रहा है. वहीं आजकल के चुनाव में फिजिकल प्रचार की बजाय सोशल मीडिया का ज्यादा इस्तेमाल भी वोटिंग ट्रेंड को कम कर रहा है. कम मतदान से कम मार्जिन वाली सीटों पर असर मतदान प्रतिशत कम होने से कम मार्जिन वाली सीटों पर इसका सीधा असर पड़ता है. 2019 में 75 सीटों पर नजदीकी मुकाबला था. ऐसे में परिणाम किसी भी तरफ झुक सकता है. कुछ जानकारों का कहना है कि कम मतदान से सत्ताधारी दलों को फायदा हो सकता है, क्योंकि लोगों की सोच होती है कि सरकार अच्छा काम कर रही है और वो बदलाव नहीं चाहते. इसीलिए वो वोट के लिए घर से बाहर नहीं निकलते. कम वोटिंग ट्रेंड से सरकार बदलने के आसार? पिछले 12 में से 5 चुनावों में वोटिंग प्रतिशत कम हुए हैं और इनमें से चार बार सरकार बदली है. 1980 के चुनाव में मतदान प्रतिशत कम हुआ और जनता पार्टी को हटाकर कांग्रेस ने सरकार बनाई. वहीं 1989 में मत प्रतिशत गिरने से कांग्रेस की सरकार चली गयी. केंद्र में बीपी सिंह के नेतृत्व में सरकार बनी. 1991 में भी मतदान में गिरावट के बाद केंद्र में कांग्रेस की वापसी हुई. हालांकि 1999 में वोटिंग प्रतिशत में गिरावट के बाद भी सत्ता नहीं बदली. वहीं 2004 में एक बार फिर मतदान में गिरावट का फायदा विपक्षी दलों को मिला. पढ़ें देश-विदेश की ख़बरें अब हिन्दी में (Hindi News) | चुनाव 2024 (Elections 2024) के लाइव अपडेट के लिए हमें फॉलो करें. और जानें इलेक्शन शेड्यूल (Election Schedule ) NDTV India पर. लाइव खबर देखें: फॉलो करे: ................................ Advertisement'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 5,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "good_text = clean_spaces_text(bad_text)\n",
    "good_text"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 6,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['मेरा शहर Link Copied रहें हर खबर से अपडेट, डाउनलोड करें Android Hindi News App, iOS Hindi News App और Amarujala Hindi News APP अपने मोबाइल पे|Get all India',\n",
       " 'Hindi News APP अपने मोबाइल पे|Get all India News in Hindi related to live update of politics, sports, entertainment, technology and education etc. Stay',\n",
       " 'entertainment, technology and education etc. Stay updated with us for all breaking news from India News and more news in Hindi. Next Article Please wait...',\n",
       " 'more news in Hindi. Next Article Please wait... Please wait... Delete All Cookies Followed',\n",
       " 'news.google.com/articles/CBMiiQFodHRwczovL25kdHYuaW4vaW5kaWEvbG9rLXNhYmhhLWVsZWN0aW9uLTIwMjQtc2Vjb25kLXBoYXNlLXZvdGluZy1pcy1zaW1pbGFyLXRvLXRoZS1maXJzdC1waG',\n",
       " 'YXNlLXZvdGluZy1pcy1zaW1pbGFyLXRvLXRoZS1maXJzdC1waGFzZS13aGF0LWlzLXRoZS1tZWFuaW5nLW9mLXRoaXMtdHJlbmQtNTUzMDc0M9IBjwFodHRwczovL25kdHYuaW4vaW5kaWEvbG9rLXNhYmhh',\n",
       " 'c0M9IBjwFodHRwczovL25kdHYuaW4vaW5kaWEvbG9rLXNhYmhhLWVsZWN0aW9uLTIwMjQtc2Vjb25kLXBoYXNlLXZvdGluZy1pcy1zaW1pbGFyLXRvLXRoZS1maXJzdC1waGFzZS13aGF0LWlzLXRoZS1tZW',\n",
       " 'bGFyLXRvLXRoZS1maXJzdC1waGFzZS13aGF0LWlzLXRoZS1tZWFuaW5nLW9mLXRoaXMtdHJlbmQtNTUzMDc0My9hbXAvMQ?hl=hi&gl=IN&ceid=IN%3Ahi',\n",
       " 'Articles : लोकसभा चुनाव 2024 (Lok Sabha Election 2024) के दूसरे चरण में शुक्रवार को 13 राज्यों और केंद्र शासित प्रदेशों की 88 सीटों पर मतदान हुए. हालांकि',\n",
       " 'शासित प्रदेशों की 88 सीटों पर मतदान हुए. हालांकि चुनाव को लेकर उत्साह शाम को आए वोटिंग प्रतिशत ने कम कर दिया. इस बार का वोटिंग ट्रेंड पहले चरण के चुनाव से',\n",
       " 'इस बार का वोटिंग ट्रेंड पहले चरण के चुनाव से भी खराब रहा. दूसरे चरण में महज 63.00 प्रतिशत मतदाताओं ने ही अपने मताधिकार का प्रयोग किया, जबकि 2019 में इन्हीं',\n",
       " 'मताधिकार का प्रयोग किया, जबकि 2019 में इन्हीं सीटों पर 70 फीसदी से ज्यादा लोगों ने बढ़-चढ़कर वोट किया था. कम होते इस वोटिंग प्रतिशत ने सभी राजनीतिक दलों का',\n",
       " 'कम होते इस वोटिंग प्रतिशत ने सभी राजनीतिक दलों का गणित बिगाड़ दिया है. पहले चरण में 21 राज्यों की 102 लोकसभा सीटों पर 64 प्रतिशत वोट डाले गए थे. पिछले',\n",
       " 'लोकसभा सीटों पर 64 प्रतिशत वोट डाले गए थे. पिछले चुनाव में उन सीटों पर भी 70 प्रतिशत से ज्यादा मतदान हुए थे. यही हाल दूसरे चरण में भी रहा. किसी भी राज्य',\n",
       " 'थे. यही हाल दूसरे चरण में भी रहा. किसी भी राज्य में मतदान का आंकड़ा 80 फीसदी को पार नहीं कर सका. वोटिंग कम होने से बढ़ी राजनीतिक दलों के साथ चुनाव आयोग की',\n",
       " 'होने से बढ़ी राजनीतिक दलों के साथ चुनाव आयोग की भी चिंता वोट करने के लिए लोगों के घरों से बाहर नहीं निकलने को लेकर राजनीतिक दलों को साथ-साथ चुनाव आयोग की',\n",
       " 'को लेकर राजनीतिक दलों को साथ-साथ चुनाव आयोग की भी चिंता बढ़ा दी है. खासकर हिंदी भाषी राज्यों में तो मतदाता वोटिंग को लेकर जैसे नीरस हो गए हैं. इससे पहले',\n",
       " 'वोटिंग को लेकर जैसे नीरस हो गए हैं. इससे पहले 2014 और 2019 में अच्छी-खासी तादाद में लोगों ने वोट किया था, लेकिन इस बार मतदाताओं में वो जोश देखने को नहीं',\n",
       " 'लेकिन इस बार मतदाताओं में वो जोश देखने को नहीं मिल रहा है. Photo Credit: Twitter - election commission यूपी में दोनों चरणों में वोटिंग कम उत्तर प्रदेश में',\n",
       " 'में दोनों चरणों में वोटिंग कम उत्तर प्रदेश में सबसे ज्यादा 80 लोकसभा की सीटें हैं, लेकिन वहां के वोटरों में चुनाव को लेकर उत्साह नहीं दिख रहा है. पहले चरण',\n",
       " 'चुनाव को लेकर उत्साह नहीं दिख रहा है. पहले चरण में जहां 57 प्रतिशत वोट पड़े, वहीं दूसरे चरण में महज 54.8 फीसदी लोगों ने अपने मताधिकार का प्रयोग किया.',\n",
       " '54.8 फीसदी लोगों ने अपने मताधिकार का प्रयोग किया. जानकारों का मानना है कि किसके पक्ष में ज्यादा वोट गया है ये इस इस ट्रेंड से निकालना काफी मुश्किल है.',\n",
       " 'है ये इस इस ट्रेंड से निकालना काफी मुश्किल है. उत्तर भारत में गर्म मौसम भी वजह! पूरे उत्तर भारत में इन दिनों मौसम का तापमान काफी बढ़ गया है. लू और गर्म',\n",
       " 'दिनों मौसम का तापमान काफी बढ़ गया है. लू और गर्म हवाओं ने लोगों का जीवन अस्त-व्यस्त किया हुआ है. लोगों के वोट करने को लेकर घर से बाहर नहीं निकलने की ये भी',\n",
       " 'वोट करने को लेकर घर से बाहर नहीं निकलने की ये भी एक वजह बताई जा रही है. वहीं चुनाव में विपक्षी पार्टियों की कम सक्रियता से भी कम वोटिंग प्रतिशत को जोड़कर',\n",
       " 'की कम सक्रियता से भी कम वोटिंग प्रतिशत को जोड़कर देखा जा रहा है. वहीं आजकल के चुनाव में फिजिकल प्रचार की बजाय सोशल मीडिया का ज्यादा इस्तेमाल भी वोटिंग',\n",
       " 'की बजाय सोशल मीडिया का ज्यादा इस्तेमाल भी वोटिंग ट्रेंड को कम कर रहा है. कम मतदान से कम मार्जिन वाली सीटों पर असर मतदान प्रतिशत कम होने से कम मार्जिन वाली',\n",
       " 'पर असर मतदान प्रतिशत कम होने से कम मार्जिन वाली सीटों पर इसका सीधा असर पड़ता है. 2019 में 75 सीटों पर नजदीकी मुकाबला था. ऐसे में परिणाम किसी भी तरफ झुक',\n",
       " 'नजदीकी मुकाबला था. ऐसे में परिणाम किसी भी तरफ झुक सकता है. कुछ जानकारों का कहना है कि कम मतदान से सत्ताधारी दलों को फायदा हो सकता है, क्योंकि लोगों की सोच',\n",
       " 'दलों को फायदा हो सकता है, क्योंकि लोगों की सोच होती है कि सरकार अच्छा काम कर रही है और वो बदलाव नहीं चाहते. इसीलिए वो वोट के लिए घर से बाहर नहीं निकलते. कम',\n",
       " 'इसीलिए वो वोट के लिए घर से बाहर नहीं निकलते. कम वोटिंग ट्रेंड से सरकार बदलने के आसार? पिछले 12 में से 5 चुनावों में वोटिंग प्रतिशत कम हुए हैं और इनमें से',\n",
       " 'चुनावों में वोटिंग प्रतिशत कम हुए हैं और इनमें से चार बार सरकार बदली है. 1980 के चुनाव में मतदान प्रतिशत कम हुआ और जनता पार्टी को हटाकर कांग्रेस ने सरकार',\n",
       " 'कम हुआ और जनता पार्टी को हटाकर कांग्रेस ने सरकार बनाई. वहीं 1989 में मत प्रतिशत गिरने से कांग्रेस की सरकार चली गयी. केंद्र में बीपी सिंह के नेतृत्व में',\n",
       " 'चली गयी. केंद्र में बीपी सिंह के नेतृत्व में सरकार बनी. 1991 में भी मतदान में गिरावट के बाद केंद्र में कांग्रेस की वापसी हुई. हालांकि 1999 में वोटिंग',\n",
       " 'कांग्रेस की वापसी हुई. हालांकि 1999 में वोटिंग प्रतिशत में गिरावट के बाद भी सत्ता नहीं बदली. वहीं 2004 में एक बार फिर मतदान में गिरावट का फायदा विपक्षी',\n",
       " 'में एक बार फिर मतदान में गिरावट का फायदा विपक्षी दलों को मिला. पढ़ें देश-विदेश की ख़बरें अब हिन्दी में (Hindi News) | चुनाव 2024 (Elections 2024) के लाइव',\n",
       " 'News) | चुनाव 2024 (Elections 2024) के लाइव अपडेट के लिए हमें फॉलो करें. और जानें इलेक्शन शेड्यूल (Election Schedule ) NDTV India पर. लाइव खबर देखें: फॉलो',\n",
       " 'Schedule ) NDTV India पर. लाइव खबर देखें: फॉलो करे: ................................ Advertisement']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 6,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# SPLITTING LARGE DOCS IN SMALLER CHUNKS\n",
    "text_splitter = RecursiveCharacterTextSplitter(chunk_size=156, chunk_overlap=50)\n",
    "chunks = text_splitter.split_text(good_text)\n",
    "chunks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 43,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "gnews.clear()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 20,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Given text : इस बार का वोटिंग ट्रेंड पहले चरण के चुनाव से भी खराब रहा. दूसरे चरण में महज 63.00 प्रतिशत मतदाताओं ने ही अपने मताधिकार का प्रयोग किया, जबकि 2019 में इन्हीं\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'<pad> The 63.00 kilometer journey from the airport to the city centre takes about 63 hours, and the return journey takes about 63 hours.</s>'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 20,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "translate_eng(chunks[10])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 1,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "from llama3 import llama3\n",
    "from nltk import sent_tokenize\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 7,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['मेरा शहर Link Copied रहें हर खबर से अपडेट, डाउनलोड करें Android Hindi News App, iOS Hindi News App और Amarujala Hindi News APP अपने मोबाइल पे|Get all India News in Hindi related to live update of politics, sports, entertainment, technology and education',\n",
       " 'sports, entertainment, technology and education etc. Stay updated with us for all breaking news from India News and more news in Hindi. Next Article Please wait... Please wait... Delete All Cookies Followed',\n",
       " 'news.google.com/articles/CBMiiQFodHRwczovL25kdHYuaW4vaW5kaWEvbG9rLXNhYmhhLWVsZWN0aW9uLTIwMjQtc2Vjb25kLXBoYXNlLXZvdGluZy1pcy1zaW1pbGFyLXRvLXRoZS1maXJzdC1waGFzZS13aGF0LWlzLXRoZS1tZWFuaW5nLW9mLXRoaXMtdHJlbmQtNTUzMDc0M9IBjwFodHRwczovL25kdHYuaW4vaW5kaWEvbG9rLX',\n",
       " 'NTUzMDc0M9IBjwFodHRwczovL25kdHYuaW4vaW5kaWEvbG9rLXNhYmhhLWVsZWN0aW9uLTIwMjQtc2Vjb25kLXBoYXNlLXZvdGluZy1pcy1zaW1pbGFyLXRvLXRoZS1maXJzdC1waGFzZS13aGF0LWlzLXRoZS1tZWFuaW5nLW9mLXRoaXMtdHJlbmQtNTUzMDc0My9hbXAvMQ?hl=hi&gl=IN&ceid=IN%3Ahi',\n",
       " 'Articles : लोकसभा चुनाव 2024 (Lok Sabha Election 2024) के दूसरे चरण में शुक्रवार को 13 राज्यों और केंद्र शासित प्रदेशों की 88 सीटों पर मतदान हुए. हालांकि चुनाव को लेकर उत्साह शाम को आए वोटिंग प्रतिशत ने कम कर दिया. इस बार का वोटिंग ट्रेंड पहले चरण के',\n",
       " 'कम कर दिया. इस बार का वोटिंग ट्रेंड पहले चरण के चुनाव से भी खराब रहा. दूसरे चरण में महज 63.00 प्रतिशत मतदाताओं ने ही अपने मताधिकार का प्रयोग किया, जबकि 2019 में इन्हीं सीटों पर 70 फीसदी से ज्यादा लोगों ने बढ़-चढ़कर वोट किया था. कम होते इस वोटिंग प्रतिशत',\n",
       " 'बढ़-चढ़कर वोट किया था. कम होते इस वोटिंग प्रतिशत ने सभी राजनीतिक दलों का गणित बिगाड़ दिया है. पहले चरण में 21 राज्यों की 102 लोकसभा सीटों पर 64 प्रतिशत वोट डाले गए थे. पिछले चुनाव में उन सीटों पर भी 70 प्रतिशत से ज्यादा मतदान हुए थे. यही हाल दूसरे चरण में',\n",
       " 'से ज्यादा मतदान हुए थे. यही हाल दूसरे चरण में भी रहा. किसी भी राज्य में मतदान का आंकड़ा 80 फीसदी को पार नहीं कर सका. वोटिंग कम होने से बढ़ी राजनीतिक दलों के साथ चुनाव आयोग की भी चिंता वोट करने के लिए लोगों के घरों से बाहर नहीं निकलने को लेकर राजनीतिक दलों',\n",
       " 'के घरों से बाहर नहीं निकलने को लेकर राजनीतिक दलों को साथ-साथ चुनाव आयोग की भी चिंता बढ़ा दी है. खासकर हिंदी भाषी राज्यों में तो मतदाता वोटिंग को लेकर जैसे नीरस हो गए हैं. इससे पहले 2014 और 2019 में अच्छी-खासी तादाद में लोगों ने वोट किया था, लेकिन इस बार',\n",
       " 'तादाद में लोगों ने वोट किया था, लेकिन इस बार मतदाताओं में वो जोश देखने को नहीं मिल रहा है. Photo Credit: Twitter - election commission यूपी में दोनों चरणों में वोटिंग कम उत्तर प्रदेश में सबसे ज्यादा 80 लोकसभा की सीटें हैं, लेकिन वहां के वोटरों में चुनाव',\n",
       " 'की सीटें हैं, लेकिन वहां के वोटरों में चुनाव को लेकर उत्साह नहीं दिख रहा है. पहले चरण में जहां 57 प्रतिशत वोट पड़े, वहीं दूसरे चरण में महज 54.8 फीसदी लोगों ने अपने मताधिकार का प्रयोग किया. जानकारों का मानना है कि किसके पक्ष में ज्यादा वोट गया है ये इस इस',\n",
       " 'है कि किसके पक्ष में ज्यादा वोट गया है ये इस इस ट्रेंड से निकालना काफी मुश्किल है. उत्तर भारत में गर्म मौसम भी वजह! पूरे उत्तर भारत में इन दिनों मौसम का तापमान काफी बढ़ गया है. लू और गर्म हवाओं ने लोगों का जीवन अस्त-व्यस्त किया हुआ है. लोगों के वोट करने',\n",
       " 'जीवन अस्त-व्यस्त किया हुआ है. लोगों के वोट करने को लेकर घर से बाहर नहीं निकलने की ये भी एक वजह बताई जा रही है. वहीं चुनाव में विपक्षी पार्टियों की कम सक्रियता से भी कम वोटिंग प्रतिशत को जोड़कर देखा जा रहा है. वहीं आजकल के चुनाव में फिजिकल प्रचार की बजाय',\n",
       " 'है. वहीं आजकल के चुनाव में फिजिकल प्रचार की बजाय सोशल मीडिया का ज्यादा इस्तेमाल भी वोटिंग ट्रेंड को कम कर रहा है. कम मतदान से कम मार्जिन वाली सीटों पर असर मतदान प्रतिशत कम होने से कम मार्जिन वाली सीटों पर इसका सीधा असर पड़ता है. 2019 में 75 सीटों पर',\n",
       " 'पर इसका सीधा असर पड़ता है. 2019 में 75 सीटों पर नजदीकी मुकाबला था. ऐसे में परिणाम किसी भी तरफ झुक सकता है. कुछ जानकारों का कहना है कि कम मतदान से सत्ताधारी दलों को फायदा हो सकता है, क्योंकि लोगों की सोच होती है कि सरकार अच्छा काम कर रही है और वो बदलाव',\n",
       " 'होती है कि सरकार अच्छा काम कर रही है और वो बदलाव नहीं चाहते. इसीलिए वो वोट के लिए घर से बाहर नहीं निकलते. कम वोटिंग ट्रेंड से सरकार बदलने के आसार? पिछले 12 में से 5 चुनावों में वोटिंग प्रतिशत कम हुए हैं और इनमें से चार बार सरकार बदली है. 1980 के चुनाव में',\n",
       " 'इनमें से चार बार सरकार बदली है. 1980 के चुनाव में मतदान प्रतिशत कम हुआ और जनता पार्टी को हटाकर कांग्रेस ने सरकार बनाई. वहीं 1989 में मत प्रतिशत गिरने से कांग्रेस की सरकार चली गयी. केंद्र में बीपी सिंह के नेतृत्व में सरकार बनी. 1991 में भी मतदान में गिरावट',\n",
       " 'में सरकार बनी. 1991 में भी मतदान में गिरावट के बाद केंद्र में कांग्रेस की वापसी हुई. हालांकि 1999 में वोटिंग प्रतिशत में गिरावट के बाद भी सत्ता नहीं बदली. वहीं 2004 में एक बार फिर मतदान में गिरावट का फायदा विपक्षी दलों को मिला. पढ़ें देश-विदेश की ख़बरें',\n",
       " 'विपक्षी दलों को मिला. पढ़ें देश-विदेश की ख़बरें अब हिन्दी में (Hindi News) | चुनाव 2024 (Elections 2024) के लाइव अपडेट के लिए हमें फॉलो करें. और जानें इलेक्शन शेड्यूल (Election Schedule ) NDTV India पर. लाइव खबर देखें: फॉलो करे:',\n",
       " ') NDTV India पर. लाइव खबर देखें: फॉलो करे: ................................ Advertisement']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 7,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# SPLITTING LARGE DOCS IN SMALLER CHUNKS\n",
    "text_splitter = RecursiveCharacterTextSplitter(chunk_size=256, chunk_overlap=50)\n",
    "chunks = text_splitter.split_text(good_text)\n",
    "chunks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 2,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Special tokens have been added in the vocabulary, make sure the associated word embeddings are fine-tuned or trained.\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "application/vnd.jupyter.widget-view+json": {
       "model_id": "aa5919fcc5dd42468090f9e46e085161",
       "version_major": 2,
       "version_minor": 0
      },
      "text/plain": [
       "Loading checkpoint shards:   0%|          | 0/4 [00:00<?, ?it/s]"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    },
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "WARNING:root:Some parameters are on the meta device device because they were offloaded to the disk and cpu.\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "llama3_rag_model = llama3()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 11,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "  0%|          | 0/20 [00:00<?, ?it/s]"
     ]
    },
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "e:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\transformers\\generation\\configuration_utils.py:492: UserWarning: `do_sample` is set to `False`. However, `temperature` is set to `0.2` -- this flag is only used in sample-based generation modes. You should set `do_sample=True` or unset `temperature`.\n",
      "  warnings.warn(\n",
      "e:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\transformers\\generation\\configuration_utils.py:497: UserWarning: `do_sample` is set to `False`. However, `top_p` is set to `0.3` -- this flag is only used in sample-based generation modes. You should set `do_sample=True` or unset `top_p`.\n",
      "  warnings.warn(\n",
      "e:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\transformers\\generation\\configuration_utils.py:509: UserWarning: `do_sample` is set to `False`. However, `top_k` is set to `20` -- this flag is only used in sample-based generation modes. You should set `do_sample=True` or unset `top_k`.\n",
      "  warnings.warn(\n",
      "The attention mask and the pad token id were not set. As a consequence, you may observe unexpected behavior. Please pass your input's `attention_mask` to obtain reliable results.\n",
      "Setting `pad_token_id` to `eos_token_id`:128001 for open-end generation.\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "\n",
      " --- Generating outputs --- \n",
      "\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "WARNING:tensorflow:From e:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\keras\\src\\losses.py:2976: The name tf.losses.sparse_softmax_cross_entropy is deprecated. Please use tf.compat.v1.losses.sparse_softmax_cross_entropy instead.\n",
      "\n",
      "  0%|          | 0/20 [04:18<?, ?it/s]\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "ename": "KeyboardInterrupt",
     "evalue": "",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[1;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[1;31mKeyboardInterrupt\u001b[0m                         Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\Fake News Detection\\RAG_KG\\googleSearch.ipynb Cell 33\u001b[0m line \u001b[0;36m3\n\u001b[0;32m      <a href='vscode-notebook-cell:/e%3A/Downloads/WeLearn/9th%20Sem/Fake%20News%20Detection/RAG_KG/googleSearch.ipynb#X42sZmlsZQ%3D%3D?line=0'>1</a>\u001b[0m translated_chunks \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m []\n\u001b[0;32m      <a href='vscode-notebook-cell:/e%3A/Downloads/WeLearn/9th%20Sem/Fake%20News%20Detection/RAG_KG/googleSearch.ipynb#X42sZmlsZQ%3D%3D?line=1'>2</a>\u001b[0m \u001b[39mfor\u001b[39;00m chunk \u001b[39min\u001b[39;00m tqdm(chunks):\n\u001b[1;32m----> <a href='vscode-notebook-cell:/e%3A/Downloads/WeLearn/9th%20Sem/Fake%20News%20Detection/RAG_KG/googleSearch.ipynb#X42sZmlsZQ%3D%3D?line=2'>3</a>\u001b[0m     translated_chunks\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mappend(llama3_rag_model\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49mllama3_eng_translator(good_text, verbose\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m1\u001b[39;49m))\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\Fake News Detection\\RAG_KG\\llama3.py:61\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mllama3.llama3_eng_translator\u001b[1;34m(self, statement, verbose)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m     58\u001b[0m \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m verbose:\n\u001b[0;32m     59\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mprint\u001b[39m(\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m\u001b[39m\\n\u001b[39;00m\u001b[39m --- Generating outputs --- \u001b[39m\u001b[39m\\n\u001b[39;00m\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m)\n\u001b[1;32m---> 61\u001b[0m outputs \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49mmodel\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49mgenerate(\n\u001b[0;32m     62\u001b[0m                         input_ids,\n\u001b[0;32m     63\u001b[0m                         max_new_tokens\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m512\u001b[39;49m,\n\u001b[0;32m     64\u001b[0m                         eos_token_id\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mterminators,\n\u001b[0;32m     65\u001b[0m                         do_sample\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39mFalse\u001b[39;49;00m,\n\u001b[0;32m     66\u001b[0m                         temperature\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m0.2\u001b[39;49m,\n\u001b[0;32m     67\u001b[0m                         top_p\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m0.3\u001b[39;49m,\n\u001b[0;32m     68\u001b[0m                         top_k\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m20\u001b[39;49m,\n\u001b[0;32m     69\u001b[0m                         )\n\u001b[0;32m     70\u001b[0m \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m verbose:                    \n\u001b[0;32m     71\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mprint\u001b[39m(\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m\u001b[39m\\n\u001b[39;00m\u001b[39m --- Got some response --- \u001b[39m\u001b[39m\\n\u001b[39;00m\u001b[39m \u001b[39m\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m)\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\torch\\utils\\_contextlib.py:115\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mcontext_decorator.<locals>.decorate_context\u001b[1;34m(*args, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m    112\u001b[0m \u001b[39m@functools\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mwraps(func)\n\u001b[0;32m    113\u001b[0m \u001b[39mdef\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mdecorate_context\u001b[39m(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39mkwargs):\n\u001b[0;32m    114\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mwith\u001b[39;00m ctx_factory():\n\u001b[1;32m--> 115\u001b[0m         \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m func(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mkwargs)\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\transformers\\generation\\utils.py:1576\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mGenerationMixin.generate\u001b[1;34m(self, inputs, generation_config, logits_processor, stopping_criteria, prefix_allowed_tokens_fn, synced_gpus, assistant_model, streamer, negative_prompt_ids, negative_prompt_attention_mask, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m   1559\u001b[0m     result \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_assisted_decoding(\n\u001b[0;32m   1560\u001b[0m         input_ids,\n\u001b[0;32m   1561\u001b[0m         candidate_generator\u001b[39m=\u001b[39mcandidate_generator,\n\u001b[1;32m   (...)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m   1572\u001b[0m         \u001b[39m*\u001b[39m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39mmodel_kwargs,\n\u001b[0;32m   1573\u001b[0m     )\n\u001b[0;32m   1574\u001b[0m \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m generation_mode \u001b[39m==\u001b[39m GenerationMode\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mGREEDY_SEARCH:\n\u001b[0;32m   1575\u001b[0m     \u001b[39m# 11. run greedy search\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[1;32m-> 1576\u001b[0m     result \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49m_greedy_search(\n\u001b[0;32m   1577\u001b[0m         input_ids,\n\u001b[0;32m   1578\u001b[0m         logits_processor\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mprepared_logits_processor,\n\u001b[0;32m   1579\u001b[0m         stopping_criteria\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mprepared_stopping_criteria,\n\u001b[0;32m   1580\u001b[0m         pad_token_id\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mgeneration_config\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49mpad_token_id,\n\u001b[0;32m   1581\u001b[0m         output_scores\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mgeneration_config\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49moutput_scores,\n\u001b[0;32m   1582\u001b[0m         output_logits\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mgeneration_config\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49moutput_logits,\n\u001b[0;32m   1583\u001b[0m         return_dict_in_generate\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mgeneration_config\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49mreturn_dict_in_generate,\n\u001b[0;32m   1584\u001b[0m         synced_gpus\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49msynced_gpus,\n\u001b[0;32m   1585\u001b[0m         streamer\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mstreamer,\n\u001b[0;32m   1586\u001b[0m         \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mmodel_kwargs,\n\u001b[0;32m   1587\u001b[0m     )\n\u001b[0;32m   1589\u001b[0m \u001b[39melif\u001b[39;00m generation_mode \u001b[39m==\u001b[39m GenerationMode\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mCONTRASTIVE_SEARCH:\n\u001b[0;32m   1590\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mnot\u001b[39;00m model_kwargs[\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m\u001b[39muse_cache\u001b[39m\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m]:\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\transformers\\generation\\utils.py:2494\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mGenerationMixin._greedy_search\u001b[1;34m(self, input_ids, logits_processor, stopping_criteria, max_length, pad_token_id, eos_token_id, output_attentions, output_hidden_states, output_scores, output_logits, return_dict_in_generate, synced_gpus, streamer, **model_kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m   2491\u001b[0m model_inputs \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mprepare_inputs_for_generation(input_ids, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39mmodel_kwargs)\n\u001b[0;32m   2493\u001b[0m \u001b[39m# forward pass to get next token\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[1;32m-> 2494\u001b[0m outputs \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m(\n\u001b[0;32m   2495\u001b[0m     \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mmodel_inputs,\n\u001b[0;32m   2496\u001b[0m     return_dict\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39mTrue\u001b[39;49;00m,\n\u001b[0;32m   2497\u001b[0m     output_attentions\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49moutput_attentions,\n\u001b[0;32m   2498\u001b[0m     output_hidden_states\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49moutput_hidden_states,\n\u001b[0;32m   2499\u001b[0m )\n\u001b[0;32m   2501\u001b[0m \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m synced_gpus \u001b[39mand\u001b[39;00m this_peer_finished:\n\u001b[0;32m   2502\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mcontinue\u001b[39;00m  \u001b[39m# don't waste resources running the code we don't need\u001b[39;00m\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\torch\\nn\\modules\\module.py:1518\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mModule._wrapped_call_impl\u001b[1;34m(self, *args, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m   1516\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_compiled_call_impl(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39mkwargs)  \u001b[39m# type: ignore[misc]\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[0;32m   1517\u001b[0m \u001b[39melse\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[1;32m-> 1518\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49m_call_impl(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mkwargs)\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\torch\\nn\\modules\\module.py:1527\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mModule._call_impl\u001b[1;34m(self, *args, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m   1522\u001b[0m \u001b[39m# If we don't have any hooks, we want to skip the rest of the logic in\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[0;32m   1523\u001b[0m \u001b[39m# this function, and just call forward.\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[0;32m   1524\u001b[0m \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mnot\u001b[39;00m (\u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_backward_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_backward_pre_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_forward_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_forward_pre_hooks\n\u001b[0;32m   1525\u001b[0m         \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_backward_pre_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_backward_hooks\n\u001b[0;32m   1526\u001b[0m         \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_forward_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_forward_pre_hooks):\n\u001b[1;32m-> 1527\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m forward_call(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mkwargs)\n\u001b[0;32m   1529\u001b[0m \u001b[39mtry\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[0;32m   1530\u001b[0m     result \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39mNone\u001b[39;00m\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\accelerate\\hooks.py:165\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36madd_hook_to_module.<locals>.new_forward\u001b[1;34m(module, *args, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m    163\u001b[0m         output \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m module\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_old_forward(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39mkwargs)\n\u001b[0;32m    164\u001b[0m \u001b[39melse\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[1;32m--> 165\u001b[0m     output \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m module\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49m_old_forward(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mkwargs)\n\u001b[0;32m    166\u001b[0m \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m module\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_hf_hook\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mpost_forward(module, output)\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\transformers\\models\\llama\\modeling_llama.py:1208\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mLlamaForCausalLM.forward\u001b[1;34m(self, input_ids, attention_mask, position_ids, past_key_values, inputs_embeds, labels, use_cache, output_attentions, output_hidden_states, return_dict, cache_position)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m   1205\u001b[0m return_dict \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m return_dict \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m return_dict \u001b[39mis\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mnot\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mNone\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39melse\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mconfig\u001b[39m.\u001b[39muse_return_dict\n\u001b[0;32m   1207\u001b[0m \u001b[39m# decoder outputs consists of (dec_features, layer_state, dec_hidden, dec_attn)\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[1;32m-> 1208\u001b[0m outputs \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49mmodel(\n\u001b[0;32m   1209\u001b[0m     input_ids\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49minput_ids,\n\u001b[0;32m   1210\u001b[0m     attention_mask\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mattention_mask,\n\u001b[0;32m   1211\u001b[0m     position_ids\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mposition_ids,\n\u001b[0;32m   1212\u001b[0m     past_key_values\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mpast_key_values,\n\u001b[0;32m   1213\u001b[0m     inputs_embeds\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49minputs_embeds,\n\u001b[0;32m   1214\u001b[0m     use_cache\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49muse_cache,\n\u001b[0;32m   1215\u001b[0m     output_attentions\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49moutput_attentions,\n\u001b[0;32m   1216\u001b[0m     output_hidden_states\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49moutput_hidden_states,\n\u001b[0;32m   1217\u001b[0m     return_dict\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mreturn_dict,\n\u001b[0;32m   1218\u001b[0m     cache_position\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mcache_position,\n\u001b[0;32m   1219\u001b[0m )\n\u001b[0;32m   1221\u001b[0m hidden_states \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m outputs[\u001b[39m0\u001b[39m]\n\u001b[0;32m   1222\u001b[0m \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mconfig\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mpretraining_tp \u001b[39m>\u001b[39m \u001b[39m1\u001b[39m:\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\torch\\nn\\modules\\module.py:1518\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mModule._wrapped_call_impl\u001b[1;34m(self, *args, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m   1516\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_compiled_call_impl(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39mkwargs)  \u001b[39m# type: ignore[misc]\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[0;32m   1517\u001b[0m \u001b[39melse\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[1;32m-> 1518\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49m_call_impl(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mkwargs)\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\torch\\nn\\modules\\module.py:1527\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mModule._call_impl\u001b[1;34m(self, *args, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m   1522\u001b[0m \u001b[39m# If we don't have any hooks, we want to skip the rest of the logic in\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[0;32m   1523\u001b[0m \u001b[39m# this function, and just call forward.\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[0;32m   1524\u001b[0m \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mnot\u001b[39;00m (\u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_backward_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_backward_pre_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_forward_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_forward_pre_hooks\n\u001b[0;32m   1525\u001b[0m         \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_backward_pre_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_backward_hooks\n\u001b[0;32m   1526\u001b[0m         \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_forward_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_forward_pre_hooks):\n\u001b[1;32m-> 1527\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m forward_call(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mkwargs)\n\u001b[0;32m   1529\u001b[0m \u001b[39mtry\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[0;32m   1530\u001b[0m     result \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39mNone\u001b[39;00m\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\transformers\\models\\llama\\modeling_llama.py:1018\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mLlamaModel.forward\u001b[1;34m(self, input_ids, attention_mask, position_ids, past_key_values, inputs_embeds, use_cache, output_attentions, output_hidden_states, return_dict, cache_position)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m   1007\u001b[0m     layer_outputs \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_gradient_checkpointing_func(\n\u001b[0;32m   1008\u001b[0m         decoder_layer\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m\u001b[39m__call__\u001b[39m,\n\u001b[0;32m   1009\u001b[0m         hidden_states,\n\u001b[1;32m   (...)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m   1015\u001b[0m         cache_position,\n\u001b[0;32m   1016\u001b[0m     )\n\u001b[0;32m   1017\u001b[0m \u001b[39melse\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[1;32m-> 1018\u001b[0m     layer_outputs \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m decoder_layer(\n\u001b[0;32m   1019\u001b[0m         hidden_states,\n\u001b[0;32m   1020\u001b[0m         attention_mask\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mcausal_mask,\n\u001b[0;32m   1021\u001b[0m         position_ids\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mposition_ids,\n\u001b[0;32m   1022\u001b[0m         past_key_value\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mpast_key_values,\n\u001b[0;32m   1023\u001b[0m         output_attentions\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49moutput_attentions,\n\u001b[0;32m   1024\u001b[0m         use_cache\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49muse_cache,\n\u001b[0;32m   1025\u001b[0m         cache_position\u001b[39m=\u001b[39;49mcache_position,\n\u001b[0;32m   1026\u001b[0m     )\n\u001b[0;32m   1028\u001b[0m hidden_states \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m layer_outputs[\u001b[39m0\u001b[39m]\n\u001b[0;32m   1030\u001b[0m \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m use_cache:\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\torch\\nn\\modules\\module.py:1518\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mModule._wrapped_call_impl\u001b[1;34m(self, *args, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m   1516\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_compiled_call_impl(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39mkwargs)  \u001b[39m# type: ignore[misc]\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[0;32m   1517\u001b[0m \u001b[39melse\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[1;32m-> 1518\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49m_call_impl(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mkwargs)\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\torch\\nn\\modules\\module.py:1527\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mModule._call_impl\u001b[1;34m(self, *args, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m   1522\u001b[0m \u001b[39m# If we don't have any hooks, we want to skip the rest of the logic in\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[0;32m   1523\u001b[0m \u001b[39m# this function, and just call forward.\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[0;32m   1524\u001b[0m \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mnot\u001b[39;00m (\u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_backward_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_backward_pre_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_forward_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_forward_pre_hooks\n\u001b[0;32m   1525\u001b[0m         \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_backward_pre_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_backward_hooks\n\u001b[0;32m   1526\u001b[0m         \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_forward_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_forward_pre_hooks):\n\u001b[1;32m-> 1527\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m forward_call(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mkwargs)\n\u001b[0;32m   1529\u001b[0m \u001b[39mtry\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[0;32m   1530\u001b[0m     result \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39mNone\u001b[39;00m\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\accelerate\\hooks.py:165\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36madd_hook_to_module.<locals>.new_forward\u001b[1;34m(module, *args, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m    163\u001b[0m         output \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m module\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_old_forward(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39mkwargs)\n\u001b[0;32m    164\u001b[0m \u001b[39melse\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[1;32m--> 165\u001b[0m     output \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m module\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49m_old_forward(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mkwargs)\n\u001b[0;32m    166\u001b[0m \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m module\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_hf_hook\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mpost_forward(module, output)\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\transformers\\models\\llama\\modeling_llama.py:756\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mLlamaDecoderLayer.forward\u001b[1;34m(self, hidden_states, attention_mask, position_ids, past_key_value, output_attentions, use_cache, cache_position, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m    754\u001b[0m residual \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m hidden_states\n\u001b[0;32m    755\u001b[0m hidden_states \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mpost_attention_layernorm(hidden_states)\n\u001b[1;32m--> 756\u001b[0m hidden_states \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49mmlp(hidden_states)\n\u001b[0;32m    757\u001b[0m hidden_states \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m residual \u001b[39m+\u001b[39m hidden_states\n\u001b[0;32m    759\u001b[0m outputs \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m (hidden_states,)\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\torch\\nn\\modules\\module.py:1518\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mModule._wrapped_call_impl\u001b[1;34m(self, *args, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m   1516\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_compiled_call_impl(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39mkwargs)  \u001b[39m# type: ignore[misc]\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[0;32m   1517\u001b[0m \u001b[39melse\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[1;32m-> 1518\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49m_call_impl(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mkwargs)\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\torch\\nn\\modules\\module.py:1527\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mModule._call_impl\u001b[1;34m(self, *args, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m   1522\u001b[0m \u001b[39m# If we don't have any hooks, we want to skip the rest of the logic in\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[0;32m   1523\u001b[0m \u001b[39m# this function, and just call forward.\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[0;32m   1524\u001b[0m \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mnot\u001b[39;00m (\u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_backward_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_backward_pre_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_forward_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_forward_pre_hooks\n\u001b[0;32m   1525\u001b[0m         \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_backward_pre_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_backward_hooks\n\u001b[0;32m   1526\u001b[0m         \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_forward_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_forward_pre_hooks):\n\u001b[1;32m-> 1527\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m forward_call(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mkwargs)\n\u001b[0;32m   1529\u001b[0m \u001b[39mtry\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[0;32m   1530\u001b[0m     result \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39mNone\u001b[39;00m\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\accelerate\\hooks.py:165\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36madd_hook_to_module.<locals>.new_forward\u001b[1;34m(module, *args, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m    163\u001b[0m         output \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m module\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_old_forward(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39mkwargs)\n\u001b[0;32m    164\u001b[0m \u001b[39melse\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[1;32m--> 165\u001b[0m     output \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m module\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49m_old_forward(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mkwargs)\n\u001b[0;32m    166\u001b[0m \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m module\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_hf_hook\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mpost_forward(module, output)\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\transformers\\models\\llama\\modeling_llama.py:240\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mLlamaMLP.forward\u001b[1;34m(self, x)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m    238\u001b[0m     down_proj \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39msum\u001b[39m(down_proj)\n\u001b[0;32m    239\u001b[0m \u001b[39melse\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[1;32m--> 240\u001b[0m     down_proj \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49mdown_proj(\u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49mact_fn(\u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49mgate_proj(x)) \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49mup_proj(x))\n\u001b[0;32m    242\u001b[0m \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m down_proj\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\torch\\nn\\modules\\module.py:1518\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mModule._wrapped_call_impl\u001b[1;34m(self, *args, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m   1516\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_compiled_call_impl(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39mkwargs)  \u001b[39m# type: ignore[misc]\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[0;32m   1517\u001b[0m \u001b[39melse\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[1;32m-> 1518\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49m_call_impl(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mkwargs)\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\torch\\nn\\modules\\module.py:1527\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mModule._call_impl\u001b[1;34m(self, *args, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m   1522\u001b[0m \u001b[39m# If we don't have any hooks, we want to skip the rest of the logic in\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[0;32m   1523\u001b[0m \u001b[39m# this function, and just call forward.\u001b[39;00m\n\u001b[0;32m   1524\u001b[0m \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mnot\u001b[39;00m (\u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_backward_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_backward_pre_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_forward_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_forward_pre_hooks\n\u001b[0;32m   1525\u001b[0m         \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_backward_pre_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_backward_hooks\n\u001b[0;32m   1526\u001b[0m         \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_forward_hooks \u001b[39mor\u001b[39;00m _global_forward_pre_hooks):\n\u001b[1;32m-> 1527\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m forward_call(\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mkwargs)\n\u001b[0;32m   1529\u001b[0m \u001b[39mtry\u001b[39;00m:\n\u001b[0;32m   1530\u001b[0m     result \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39mNone\u001b[39;00m\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\accelerate\\hooks.py:160\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36madd_hook_to_module.<locals>.new_forward\u001b[1;34m(module, *args, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m    159\u001b[0m \u001b[39mdef\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mnew_forward\u001b[39m(module, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39mkwargs):\n\u001b[1;32m--> 160\u001b[0m     args, kwargs \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m module\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49m_hf_hook\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49mpre_forward(module, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49margs, \u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m*\u001b[39;49mkwargs)\n\u001b[0;32m    161\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m module\u001b[39m.\u001b[39m_hf_hook\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mno_grad:\n\u001b[0;32m    162\u001b[0m         \u001b[39mwith\u001b[39;00m torch\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mno_grad():\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\accelerate\\hooks.py:294\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mAlignDevicesHook.pre_forward\u001b[1;34m(self, module, *args, **kwargs)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m    291\u001b[0m             \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mweights_map[name]\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mdtype \u001b[39m==\u001b[39m torch\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mint8:\n\u001b[0;32m    292\u001b[0m                 fp16_statistics \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mweights_map[name\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mreplace(\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m\u001b[39mweight\u001b[39m\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m, \u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m\u001b[39mSCB\u001b[39m\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m)]\n\u001b[0;32m    293\u001b[0m         set_module_tensor_to_device(\n\u001b[1;32m--> 294\u001b[0m             module, name, \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mexecution_device, value\u001b[39m=\u001b[39m\u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49mweights_map[name], fp16_statistics\u001b[39m=\u001b[39mfp16_statistics\n\u001b[0;32m    295\u001b[0m         )\n\u001b[0;32m    297\u001b[0m \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m send_to_device(args, \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mexecution_device), send_to_device(\n\u001b[0;32m    298\u001b[0m     kwargs, \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mexecution_device, skip_keys\u001b[39m=\u001b[39m\u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mskip_keys\n\u001b[0;32m    299\u001b[0m )\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\accelerate\\utils\\offload.py:118\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mPrefixedDataset.__getitem__\u001b[1;34m(self, key)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m    117\u001b[0m \u001b[39mdef\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39m__getitem__\u001b[39m(\u001b[39mself\u001b[39m, key):\n\u001b[1;32m--> 118\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49mdataset[\u001b[39mf\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m{\u001b[39;49;00m\u001b[39mself\u001b[39;49m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39;49mprefix\u001b[39m}\u001b[39;49;00m\u001b[39m{\u001b[39;49;00mkey\u001b[39m}\u001b[39;49;00m\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39;49m]\n",
      "File \u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\nineSemEnv\\Lib\\site-packages\\accelerate\\utils\\offload.py:169\u001b[0m, in \u001b[0;36mOffloadedWeightsLoader.__getitem__\u001b[1;34m(self, key)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m    167\u001b[0m device \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m \u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m\u001b[39mcpu\u001b[39m\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mdevice \u001b[39mis\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mNone\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39melse\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39mself\u001b[39m\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mdevice\n\u001b[0;32m    168\u001b[0m \u001b[39mwith\u001b[39;00m safe_open(weight_info[\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m\u001b[39msafetensors_file\u001b[39m\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m], framework\u001b[39m=\u001b[39m\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m\u001b[39mpt\u001b[39m\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m, device\u001b[39m=\u001b[39mdevice) \u001b[39mas\u001b[39;00m f:\n\u001b[1;32m--> 169\u001b[0m     tensor \u001b[39m=\u001b[39m f\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mget_tensor(weight_info\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mget(\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m\u001b[39mweight_name\u001b[39m\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m, key))\n\u001b[0;32m    171\u001b[0m \u001b[39mif\u001b[39;00m \u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m\u001b[39mdtype\u001b[39m\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m \u001b[39min\u001b[39;00m weight_info:\n\u001b[0;32m    172\u001b[0m     \u001b[39mreturn\u001b[39;00m tensor\u001b[39m.\u001b[39mto(\u001b[39mgetattr\u001b[39m(torch, weight_info[\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m\u001b[39mdtype\u001b[39m\u001b[39m\"\u001b[39m]))\n",
      "\u001b[1;31mKeyboardInterrupt\u001b[0m: "
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "translated_chunks = []\n",
    "for chunk in tqdm(chunks):\n",
    "    translated_chunks.append(llama3_rag_model.llama3_eng_translator(good_text, verbose=1))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 3,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import torch, gc"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 11,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "11987"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 11,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "gc.collect()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 12,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "NameError",
     "evalue": "name 'llama3_rag_model' is not defined",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[1;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[1;31mNameError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[1;32me:\\Downloads\\WeLearn\\9th Sem\\Fake News Detection\\RAG_KG\\googleSearch.ipynb Cell 37\u001b[0m line \u001b[0;36m1\n\u001b[1;32m----> <a href='vscode-notebook-cell:/e%3A/Downloads/WeLearn/9th%20Sem/Fake%20News%20Detection/RAG_KG/googleSearch.ipynb#X50sZmlsZQ%3D%3D?line=0'>1</a>\u001b[0m \u001b[39mdel\u001b[39;00m llama3_rag_model\n",
      "\u001b[1;31mNameError\u001b[0m: name 'llama3_rag_model' is not defined"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "del llama3_rag_model"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 13,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "torch.cuda.empty_cache()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 3,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# from google.transliteration import transliterate_text"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 4,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "from langchain.text_splitter import RecursiveCharacterTextSplitter\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 8,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def contains_hindi(text):\n",
    "    hindi_pattern = re.compile(r'[\\u0900-\\u097F]+')\n",
    "    if hindi_pattern.search(text):\n",
    "        print(\"contains hindi !\")\n",
    "        return True\n",
    "    return False"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 12,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import googletrans"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 10,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "translator = Translator()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 11,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "contains hindi !\n",
      "Given Text = बढ़-चढ़कर वोट किया था. कम होते इस वोटिंग प्रतिशत ने सभी राजनीतिक दलों का गणित बिगाड़ दिया है. पहले चरण में 21 राज्यों की 102 लोकसभा सीटों पर 64 प्रतिशत वोट डाले गए थे. पिछले चुनाव में उन सीटों पर भी 70 प्रतिशत से ज्यादा मतदान हुए थे. यही हाल दूसरे चरण में\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'Voted enthusiastically. This decreasing voting percentage has spoiled the mathematics of all political parties. In the first phase, 64 percent votes were cast on 102 Lok Sabha seats in 21 states. In the last elections, more than 70 percent voting took place on those seats also. Same situation in the second phase'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 11,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "eng_good_text = \"\"\n",
    "c = chunks[6]\n",
    "if contains_hindi(c):\n",
    "    print(\"Given Text =\", c)\n",
    "    eng_good_text = translator.translate(c, src=\"hi\", dest=\"en\").text\n",
    "\n",
    "eng_good_text"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 13,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "3.1.0-alpha\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# import googletrans\n",
    "# print(googletrans.__version__)"
   ]
  }
 ],
 "metadata": {
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   "display_name": "nineSemEnv",
   "language": "python",
   "name": "python3"
  },
  "language_info": {
   "codemirror_mode": {
    "name": "ipython",
    "version": 3
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   "file_extension": ".py",
   "mimetype": "text/x-python",
   "name": "python",
   "nbconvert_exporter": "python",
   "pygments_lexer": "ipython3",
   "version": "3.11.6"
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 },
 "nbformat": 4,
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