os_module/notebook_windows.ipynb

{
 "cells": [
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Operating System Module"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The Operating System ```os``` module is used to navigate around the Operating System. It therefore performs similar behaviour to the native shell programming languages (PowerShell in Windows and bash in Linux) and is primarily functional based."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Categorize_Identifiers Module"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "This notebook will use the following functions ```dir2```, ```variables``` and ```view``` in the custom module ```categorize_identifiers``` which is found in the same directory as this notebook file. ```dir2``` is a variant of ```dir``` that groups identifiers into a ```dict``` under categories and ```variables``` is an IPython based a variable inspector. ```view``` is used to view a ```Collection``` in more detail:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 1,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "from categorize_identifiers import dir2, variables, view"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## OS Module"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The module can be imported:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 2,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import os"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The identifiers for the ```os``` module can be examined. \n",
    "\n",
    "There are a number of uppercase constants, which are separated from lowercase constants listed as attributes. The uppercase constants are represent various flags and options used in file operations, process management, and file permissions and are typically used internally by developers. \n",
    "\n",
    "The lowercase constants are typically used by the end user and are sometimes OS specific.\n",
    "\n",
    "The functions allow navigation around the operating system, changing of file permissions, creating and deleting folders:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 3,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "{'attribute': ['altsep',\n",
      "               'curdir',\n",
      "               'defpath',\n",
      "               'devnull',\n",
      "               'environ',\n",
      "               'extsep',\n",
      "               'linesep',\n",
      "               'name',\n",
      "               'pardir',\n",
      "               'pathsep',\n",
      "               'sep',\n",
      "               'supports_bytes_environ',\n",
      "               'supports_dir_fd',\n",
      "               'supports_effective_ids',\n",
      "               'supports_fd',\n",
      "               'supports_follow_symlinks'],\n",
      " 'constant': ['EX_OK',\n",
      "              'F_OK',\n",
      "              'O_APPEND',\n",
      "              'O_BINARY',\n",
      "              'O_CREAT',\n",
      "              'O_EXCL',\n",
      "              'O_NOINHERIT',\n",
      "              'O_RANDOM',\n",
      "              'O_RDONLY',\n",
      "              'O_RDWR',\n",
      "              'O_SEQUENTIAL',\n",
      "              'O_SHORT_LIVED',\n",
      "              'O_TEMPORARY',\n",
      "              'O_TEXT',\n",
      "              'O_TRUNC',\n",
      "              'O_WRONLY',\n",
      "              'P_DETACH',\n",
      "              'P_NOWAIT',\n",
      "              'P_NOWAITO',\n",
      "              'P_OVERLAY',\n",
      "              'P_WAIT',\n",
      "              'R_OK',\n",
      "              'SEEK_CUR',\n",
      "              'SEEK_END',\n",
      "              'SEEK_SET',\n",
      "              'TMP_MAX',\n",
      "              'W_OK',\n",
      "              'X_OK'],\n",
      " 'module': ['abc', 'path', 'st', 'sys'],\n",
      " 'method': ['abort',\n",
      "            'access',\n",
      "            'add_dll_directory',\n",
      "            'chdir',\n",
      "            'chmod',\n",
      "            'close',\n",
      "            'closerange',\n",
      "            'cpu_count',\n",
      "            'device_encoding',\n",
      "            'dup',\n",
      "            'dup2',\n",
      "            'execl',\n",
      "            'execle',\n",
      "            'execlp',\n",
      "            'execlpe',\n",
      "            'execv',\n",
      "            'execve',\n",
      "            'execvp',\n",
      "            'execvpe',\n",
      "            'fdopen',\n",
      "            'fsdecode',\n",
      "            'fsencode',\n",
      "            'fspath',\n",
      "            'fstat',\n",
      "            'fsync',\n",
      "            'ftruncate',\n",
      "            'get_blocking',\n",
      "            'get_exec_path',\n",
      "            'get_handle_inheritable',\n",
      "            'get_inheritable',\n",
      "            'get_terminal_size',\n",
      "            'getcwd',\n",
      "            'getcwdb',\n",
      "            'getenv',\n",
      "            'getlogin',\n",
      "            'getpid',\n",
      "            'getppid',\n",
      "            'isatty',\n",
      "            'kill',\n",
      "            'link',\n",
      "            'listdir',\n",
      "            'listdrives',\n",
      "            'listmounts',\n",
      "            'listvolumes',\n",
      "            'lseek',\n",
      "            'lstat',\n",
      "            'makedirs',\n",
      "            'mkdir',\n",
      "            'open',\n",
      "            'pipe',\n",
      "            'popen',\n",
      "            'putenv',\n",
      "            'read',\n",
      "            'readlink',\n",
      "            'remove',\n",
      "            'removedirs',\n",
      "            'rename',\n",
      "            'renames',\n",
      "            'replace',\n",
      "            'rmdir',\n",
      "            'scandir',\n",
      "            'set_blocking',\n",
      "            'set_handle_inheritable',\n",
      "            'set_inheritable',\n",
      "            'spawnl',\n",
      "            'spawnle',\n",
      "            'spawnv',\n",
      "            'spawnve',\n",
      "            'startfile',\n",
      "            'stat',\n",
      "            'strerror',\n",
      "            'symlink',\n",
      "            'system',\n",
      "            'times',\n",
      "            'truncate',\n",
      "            'umask',\n",
      "            'unlink',\n",
      "            'unsetenv',\n",
      "            'urandom',\n",
      "            'utime',\n",
      "            'waitpid',\n",
      "            'waitstatus_to_exitcode',\n",
      "            'walk',\n",
      "            'write'],\n",
      " 'lower_class': ['error',\n",
      "                 'stat_result',\n",
      "                 'statvfs_result',\n",
      "                 'terminal_size',\n",
      "                 'times_result',\n",
      "                 'uname_result'],\n",
      " 'upper_class': ['DirEntry',\n",
      "                 'GenericAlias',\n",
      "                 'Mapping',\n",
      "                 'MutableMapping',\n",
      "                 'PathLike'],\n",
      " 'datamodel_attribute': ['__all__',\n",
      "                         '__builtins__',\n",
      "                         '__doc__',\n",
      "                         '__file__',\n",
      "                         '__name__',\n",
      "                         '__package__',\n",
      "                         '__spec__'],\n",
      " 'datamodel_method': ['__loader__'],\n",
      " 'internal_method': ['_AddedDllDirectory',\n",
      "                     '_Environ',\n",
      "                     '_check_methods',\n",
      "                     '_execvpe',\n",
      "                     '_exists',\n",
      "                     '_exit',\n",
      "                     '_fspath',\n",
      "                     '_get_exports_list',\n",
      "                     '_wrap_close']}\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "dir2(os)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Most of the functions will operate in the current working directory by default. There is the submodule ```os.path``` which groups together path based identifiers, which are used to construct a file path. This file path can be used to change the directory used by ```os``` functions:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 4,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "{'attribute': ['altsep',\n",
      "               'curdir',\n",
      "               'defpath',\n",
      "               'devnull',\n",
      "               'extsep',\n",
      "               'pardir',\n",
      "               'pathsep',\n",
      "               'sep',\n",
      "               'supports_unicode_filenames'],\n",
      " 'module': ['genericpath', 'os', 'stat', 'sys'],\n",
      " 'method': ['abspath',\n",
      "            'basename',\n",
      "            'commonpath',\n",
      "            'commonprefix',\n",
      "            'dirname',\n",
      "            'exists',\n",
      "            'expanduser',\n",
      "            'expandvars',\n",
      "            'getatime',\n",
      "            'getctime',\n",
      "            'getmtime',\n",
      "            'getsize',\n",
      "            'isabs',\n",
      "            'isdevdrive',\n",
      "            'isdir',\n",
      "            'isfile',\n",
      "            'isjunction',\n",
      "            'islink',\n",
      "            'ismount',\n",
      "            'join',\n",
      "            'lexists',\n",
      "            'normcase',\n",
      "            'normpath',\n",
      "            'realpath',\n",
      "            'relpath',\n",
      "            'samefile',\n",
      "            'sameopenfile',\n",
      "            'samestat',\n",
      "            'split',\n",
      "            'splitdrive',\n",
      "            'splitext',\n",
      "            'splitroot'],\n",
      " 'datamodel_attribute': ['__all__',\n",
      "                         '__builtins__',\n",
      "                         '__doc__',\n",
      "                         '__file__',\n",
      "                         '__name__',\n",
      "                         '__package__',\n",
      "                         '__spec__'],\n",
      " 'datamodel_method': ['__loader__'],\n",
      " 'internal_attribute': ['_LCMAP_LOWERCASE', '_LOCALE_NAME_INVARIANT'],\n",
      " 'internal_method': ['_LCMapStringEx',\n",
      "                     '_abspath_fallback',\n",
      "                     '_get_bothseps',\n",
      "                     '_getfinalpathname',\n",
      "                     '_getfinalpathname_nonstrict',\n",
      "                     '_getfullpathname',\n",
      "                     '_getvolumepathname',\n",
      "                     '_nt_readlink',\n",
      "                     '_path_isdevdrive',\n",
      "                     '_path_normpath',\n",
      "                     '_readlink_deep']}\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "dir2(os.path)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Note that the most commonly used lowercase constants are also imported directly into the ```os``` namespace for convenience:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 5,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 5,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.sep == os.path.sep"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "A summary about the module can be found using ```?```"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 6,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "\u001b[1;31mType:\u001b[0m        module\n",
       "\u001b[1;31mString form:\u001b[0m <module 'os' (frozen)>\n",
       "\u001b[1;31mFile:\u001b[0m        c:\\users\\phili\\anaconda3\\envs\\vscode-env\\lib\\os.py\n",
       "\u001b[1;31mDocstring:\u001b[0m  \n",
       "OS routines for NT or Posix depending on what system we're on.\n",
       "\n",
       "This exports:\n",
       "  - all functions from posix or nt, e.g. unlink, stat, etc.\n",
       "  - os.path is either posixpath or ntpath\n",
       "  - os.name is either 'posix' or 'nt'\n",
       "  - os.curdir is a string representing the current directory (always '.')\n",
       "  - os.pardir is a string representing the parent directory (always '..')\n",
       "  - os.sep is the (or a most common) pathname separator ('/' or '\\\\')\n",
       "  - os.extsep is the extension separator (always '.')\n",
       "  - os.altsep is the alternate pathname separator (None or '/')\n",
       "  - os.pathsep is the component separator used in $PATH etc\n",
       "  - os.linesep is the line separator in text files ('\\r' or '\\n' or '\\r\\n')\n",
       "  - os.defpath is the default search path for executables\n",
       "  - os.devnull is the file path of the null device ('/dev/null', etc.)\n",
       "\n",
       "Programs that import and use 'os' stand a better chance of being\n",
       "portable between different platforms.  Of course, they must then\n",
       "only use functions that are defined by all platforms (e.g., unlink\n",
       "and opendir), and leave all pathname manipulation to os.path\n",
       "(e.g., split and join)."
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "More details can be seen using ```help```:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 7,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Help on module os:\n",
      "\n",
      "NAME\n",
      "    os - OS routines for NT or Posix depending on what system we're on.\n",
      "\n",
      "MODULE REFERENCE\n",
      "    https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/os.html\n",
      "\n",
      "    The following documentation is automatically generated from the Python\n",
      "    source files.  It may be incomplete, incorrect or include features that\n",
      "    are considered implementation detail and may vary between Python\n",
      "    implementations.  When in doubt, consult the module reference at the\n",
      "    location listed above.\n",
      "\n",
      "DESCRIPTION\n",
      "    This exports:\n",
      "      - all functions from posix or nt, e.g. unlink, stat, etc.\n",
      "      - os.path is either posixpath or ntpath\n",
      "      - os.name is either 'posix' or 'nt'\n",
      "      - os.curdir is a string representing the current directory (always '.')\n",
      "      - os.pardir is a string representing the parent directory (always '..')\n",
      "      - os.sep is the (or a most common) pathname separator ('/' or '\\\\')\n",
      "      - os.extsep is the extension separator (always '.')\n",
      "      - os.altsep is the alternate pathname separator (None or '/')\n",
      "      - os.pathsep is the component separator used in $PATH etc\n",
      "      - os.linesep is the line separator in text files ('\\r' or '\\n' or '\\r\\n')\n",
      "      - os.defpath is the default search path for executables\n",
      "      - os.devnull is the file path of the null device ('/dev/null', etc.)\n",
      "\n",
      "    Programs that import and use 'os' stand a better chance of being\n",
      "    portable between different platforms.  Of course, they must then\n",
      "    only use functions that are defined by all platforms (e.g., unlink\n",
      "    and opendir), and leave all pathname manipulation to os.path\n",
      "    (e.g., split and join).\n",
      "\n",
      "CLASSES\n",
      "    builtins.Exception(builtins.BaseException)\n",
      "        builtins.OSError\n",
      "    builtins.object\n",
      "        nt.DirEntry\n",
      "    builtins.tuple(builtins.object)\n",
      "        nt.times_result\n",
      "        nt.uname_result\n",
      "        stat_result\n",
      "        statvfs_result\n",
      "        terminal_size\n",
      "\n",
      "    class DirEntry(builtins.object)\n",
      "     |  Methods defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __fspath__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Returns the path for the entry.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __repr__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return repr(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  inode(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return inode of the entry; cached per entry.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  is_dir(self, /, *, follow_symlinks=True)\n",
      "     |      Return True if the entry is a directory; cached per entry.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  is_file(self, /, *, follow_symlinks=True)\n",
      "     |      Return True if the entry is a file; cached per entry.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  is_junction(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return True if the entry is a junction; cached per entry.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  is_symlink(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return True if the entry is a symbolic link; cached per entry.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  stat(self, /, *, follow_symlinks=True)\n",
      "     |      Return stat_result object for the entry; cached per entry.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Class methods defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __class_getitem__(...) from builtins.type\n",
      "     |      See PEP 585\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Data descriptors defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  name\n",
      "     |      the entry's base filename, relative to scandir() \"path\" argument\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  path\n",
      "     |      the entry's full path name; equivalent to os.path.join(scandir_path, entry.name)\n",
      "\n",
      "    error = class OSError(Exception)\n",
      "     |  Base class for I/O related errors.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  Method resolution order:\n",
      "     |      OSError\n",
      "     |      Exception\n",
      "     |      BaseException\n",
      "     |      object\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  Built-in subclasses:\n",
      "     |      BlockingIOError\n",
      "     |      ChildProcessError\n",
      "     |      ConnectionError\n",
      "     |      FileExistsError\n",
      "     |      ... and 7 other subclasses\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  Methods defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __init__(self, /, *args, **kwargs)\n",
      "     |      Initialize self.  See help(type(self)) for accurate signature.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __reduce__(...)\n",
      "     |      Helper for pickle.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __str__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return str(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Static methods defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __new__(*args, **kwargs) from builtins.type\n",
      "     |      Create and return a new object.  See help(type) for accurate signature.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Data descriptors defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  characters_written\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  errno\n",
      "     |      POSIX exception code\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  filename\n",
      "     |      exception filename\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  filename2\n",
      "     |      second exception filename\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  strerror\n",
      "     |      exception strerror\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  winerror\n",
      "     |      Win32 exception code\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Methods inherited from BaseException:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __delattr__(self, name, /)\n",
      "     |      Implement delattr(self, name).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __getattribute__(self, name, /)\n",
      "     |      Return getattr(self, name).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __repr__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return repr(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __setattr__(self, name, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Implement setattr(self, name, value).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __setstate__(...)\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  add_note(...)\n",
      "     |      Exception.add_note(note) --\n",
      "     |      add a note to the exception\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  with_traceback(...)\n",
      "     |      Exception.with_traceback(tb) --\n",
      "     |      set self.__traceback__ to tb and return self.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Data descriptors inherited from BaseException:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __cause__\n",
      "     |      exception cause\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __context__\n",
      "     |      exception context\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __dict__\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __suppress_context__\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __traceback__\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  args\n",
      "\n",
      "    class stat_result(builtins.tuple)\n",
      "     |  stat_result(iterable=(), /)\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  stat_result: Result from stat, fstat, or lstat.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  This object may be accessed either as a tuple of\n",
      "     |    (mode, ino, dev, nlink, uid, gid, size, atime, mtime, ctime)\n",
      "     |  or via the attributes st_mode, st_ino, st_dev, st_nlink, st_uid, and so on.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  Posix/windows: If your platform supports st_blksize, st_blocks, st_rdev,\n",
      "     |  or st_flags, they are available as attributes only.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  See os.stat for more information.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  Method resolution order:\n",
      "     |      stat_result\n",
      "     |      builtins.tuple\n",
      "     |      builtins.object\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  Methods defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __reduce__(...)\n",
      "     |      Helper for pickle.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __repr__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return repr(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Static methods defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __new__(*args, **kwargs) from builtins.type\n",
      "     |      Create and return a new object.  See help(type) for accurate signature.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Data descriptors defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_atime\n",
      "     |      time of last access\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_atime_ns\n",
      "     |      time of last access in nanoseconds\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_birthtime\n",
      "     |      time of creation\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_birthtime_ns\n",
      "     |      time of creation in nanoseconds\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_ctime\n",
      "     |      time of last change\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_ctime_ns\n",
      "     |      time of last change in nanoseconds\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_dev\n",
      "     |      device\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_file_attributes\n",
      "     |      Windows file attribute bits\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_gid\n",
      "     |      group ID of owner\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_ino\n",
      "     |      inode\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_mode\n",
      "     |      protection bits\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_mtime\n",
      "     |      time of last modification\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_mtime_ns\n",
      "     |      time of last modification in nanoseconds\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_nlink\n",
      "     |      number of hard links\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_reparse_tag\n",
      "     |      Windows reparse tag\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_size\n",
      "     |      total size, in bytes\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  st_uid\n",
      "     |      user ID of owner\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Data and other attributes defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __match_args__ = ('st_mode', 'st_ino', 'st_dev', 'st_nlink', 'st_uid',...\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  n_fields = 20\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  n_sequence_fields = 10\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  n_unnamed_fields = 3\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Methods inherited from builtins.tuple:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __add__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self+value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __contains__(self, key, /)\n",
      "     |      Return bool(key in self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __eq__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self==value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __ge__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self>=value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __getattribute__(self, name, /)\n",
      "     |      Return getattr(self, name).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __getitem__(self, key, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self[key].\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __getnewargs__(self, /)\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __gt__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self>value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __hash__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return hash(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __iter__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Implement iter(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __le__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self<=value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __len__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return len(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __lt__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self<value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __mul__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self*value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __ne__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self!=value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __rmul__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return value*self.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  count(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return number of occurrences of value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  index(self, value, start=0, stop=9223372036854775807, /)\n",
      "     |      Return first index of value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |      Raises ValueError if the value is not present.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Class methods inherited from builtins.tuple:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __class_getitem__(...) from builtins.type\n",
      "     |      See PEP 585\n",
      "\n",
      "    class statvfs_result(builtins.tuple)\n",
      "     |  statvfs_result(iterable=(), /)\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  statvfs_result: Result from statvfs or fstatvfs.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  This object may be accessed either as a tuple of\n",
      "     |    (bsize, frsize, blocks, bfree, bavail, files, ffree, favail, flag, namemax),\n",
      "     |  or via the attributes f_bsize, f_frsize, f_blocks, f_bfree, and so on.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  See os.statvfs for more information.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  Method resolution order:\n",
      "     |      statvfs_result\n",
      "     |      builtins.tuple\n",
      "     |      builtins.object\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  Methods defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __reduce__(...)\n",
      "     |      Helper for pickle.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __repr__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return repr(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Static methods defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __new__(*args, **kwargs) from builtins.type\n",
      "     |      Create and return a new object.  See help(type) for accurate signature.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Data descriptors defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  f_bavail\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  f_bfree\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  f_blocks\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  f_bsize\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  f_favail\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  f_ffree\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  f_files\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  f_flag\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  f_frsize\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  f_fsid\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  f_namemax\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Data and other attributes defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __match_args__ = ('f_bsize', 'f_frsize', 'f_blocks', 'f_bfree', 'f_bav...\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  n_fields = 11\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  n_sequence_fields = 10\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  n_unnamed_fields = 0\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Methods inherited from builtins.tuple:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __add__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self+value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __contains__(self, key, /)\n",
      "     |      Return bool(key in self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __eq__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self==value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __ge__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self>=value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __getattribute__(self, name, /)\n",
      "     |      Return getattr(self, name).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __getitem__(self, key, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self[key].\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __getnewargs__(self, /)\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __gt__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self>value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __hash__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return hash(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __iter__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Implement iter(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __le__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self<=value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __len__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return len(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __lt__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self<value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __mul__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self*value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __ne__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self!=value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __rmul__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return value*self.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  count(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return number of occurrences of value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  index(self, value, start=0, stop=9223372036854775807, /)\n",
      "     |      Return first index of value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |      Raises ValueError if the value is not present.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Class methods inherited from builtins.tuple:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __class_getitem__(...) from builtins.type\n",
      "     |      See PEP 585\n",
      "\n",
      "    class terminal_size(builtins.tuple)\n",
      "     |  terminal_size(iterable=(), /)\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  A tuple of (columns, lines) for holding terminal window size\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  Method resolution order:\n",
      "     |      terminal_size\n",
      "     |      builtins.tuple\n",
      "     |      builtins.object\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  Methods defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __reduce__(...)\n",
      "     |      Helper for pickle.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __repr__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return repr(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Static methods defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __new__(*args, **kwargs) from builtins.type\n",
      "     |      Create and return a new object.  See help(type) for accurate signature.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Data descriptors defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  columns\n",
      "     |      width of the terminal window in characters\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  lines\n",
      "     |      height of the terminal window in characters\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Data and other attributes defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __match_args__ = ('columns', 'lines')\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  n_fields = 2\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  n_sequence_fields = 2\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  n_unnamed_fields = 0\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Methods inherited from builtins.tuple:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __add__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self+value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __contains__(self, key, /)\n",
      "     |      Return bool(key in self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __eq__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self==value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __ge__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self>=value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __getattribute__(self, name, /)\n",
      "     |      Return getattr(self, name).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __getitem__(self, key, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self[key].\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __getnewargs__(self, /)\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __gt__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self>value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __hash__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return hash(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __iter__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Implement iter(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __le__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self<=value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __len__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return len(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __lt__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self<value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __mul__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self*value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __ne__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self!=value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __rmul__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return value*self.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  count(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return number of occurrences of value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  index(self, value, start=0, stop=9223372036854775807, /)\n",
      "     |      Return first index of value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |      Raises ValueError if the value is not present.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Class methods inherited from builtins.tuple:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __class_getitem__(...) from builtins.type\n",
      "     |      See PEP 585\n",
      "\n",
      "    class times_result(builtins.tuple)\n",
      "     |  times_result(iterable=(), /)\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  times_result: Result from os.times().\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  This object may be accessed either as a tuple of\n",
      "     |    (user, system, children_user, children_system, elapsed),\n",
      "     |  or via the attributes user, system, children_user, children_system,\n",
      "     |  and elapsed.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  See os.times for more information.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  Method resolution order:\n",
      "     |      times_result\n",
      "     |      builtins.tuple\n",
      "     |      builtins.object\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  Methods defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __reduce__(...)\n",
      "     |      Helper for pickle.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __repr__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return repr(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Static methods defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __new__(*args, **kwargs) from builtins.type\n",
      "     |      Create and return a new object.  See help(type) for accurate signature.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Data descriptors defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  children_system\n",
      "     |      system time of children\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  children_user\n",
      "     |      user time of children\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  elapsed\n",
      "     |      elapsed time since an arbitrary point in the past\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  system\n",
      "     |      system time\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  user\n",
      "     |      user time\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Data and other attributes defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __match_args__ = ('user', 'system', 'children_user', 'children_system'...\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  n_fields = 5\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  n_sequence_fields = 5\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  n_unnamed_fields = 0\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Methods inherited from builtins.tuple:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __add__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self+value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __contains__(self, key, /)\n",
      "     |      Return bool(key in self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __eq__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self==value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __ge__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self>=value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __getattribute__(self, name, /)\n",
      "     |      Return getattr(self, name).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __getitem__(self, key, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self[key].\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __getnewargs__(self, /)\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __gt__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self>value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __hash__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return hash(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __iter__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Implement iter(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __le__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self<=value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __len__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return len(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __lt__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self<value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __mul__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self*value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __ne__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self!=value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __rmul__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return value*self.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  count(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return number of occurrences of value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  index(self, value, start=0, stop=9223372036854775807, /)\n",
      "     |      Return first index of value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |      Raises ValueError if the value is not present.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Class methods inherited from builtins.tuple:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __class_getitem__(...) from builtins.type\n",
      "     |      See PEP 585\n",
      "\n",
      "    class uname_result(builtins.tuple)\n",
      "     |  uname_result(iterable=(), /)\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  uname_result: Result from os.uname().\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  This object may be accessed either as a tuple of\n",
      "     |    (sysname, nodename, release, version, machine),\n",
      "     |  or via the attributes sysname, nodename, release, version, and machine.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  See os.uname for more information.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  Method resolution order:\n",
      "     |      uname_result\n",
      "     |      builtins.tuple\n",
      "     |      builtins.object\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  Methods defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __reduce__(...)\n",
      "     |      Helper for pickle.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __repr__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return repr(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Static methods defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __new__(*args, **kwargs) from builtins.type\n",
      "     |      Create and return a new object.  See help(type) for accurate signature.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Data descriptors defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  machine\n",
      "     |      hardware identifier\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  nodename\n",
      "     |      name of machine on network (implementation-defined)\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  release\n",
      "     |      operating system release\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  sysname\n",
      "     |      operating system name\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  version\n",
      "     |      operating system version\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Data and other attributes defined here:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __match_args__ = ('sysname', 'nodename', 'release', 'version', 'machin...\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  n_fields = 5\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  n_sequence_fields = 5\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  n_unnamed_fields = 0\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Methods inherited from builtins.tuple:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __add__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self+value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __contains__(self, key, /)\n",
      "     |      Return bool(key in self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __eq__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self==value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __ge__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self>=value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __getattribute__(self, name, /)\n",
      "     |      Return getattr(self, name).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __getitem__(self, key, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self[key].\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __getnewargs__(self, /)\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __gt__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self>value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __hash__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return hash(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __iter__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Implement iter(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __le__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self<=value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __len__(self, /)\n",
      "     |      Return len(self).\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __lt__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self<value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __mul__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self*value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __ne__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return self!=value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __rmul__(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return value*self.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  count(self, value, /)\n",
      "     |      Return number of occurrences of value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  index(self, value, start=0, stop=9223372036854775807, /)\n",
      "     |      Return first index of value.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |      Raises ValueError if the value is not present.\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------\n",
      "     |  Class methods inherited from builtins.tuple:\n",
      "     |\n",
      "     |  __class_getitem__(...) from builtins.type\n",
      "     |      See PEP 585\n",
      "\n",
      "FUNCTIONS\n",
      "    _exit(status)\n",
      "        Exit to the system with specified status, without normal exit processing.\n",
      "\n",
      "    abort()\n",
      "        Abort the interpreter immediately.\n",
      "\n",
      "        This function 'dumps core' or otherwise fails in the hardest way possible\n",
      "        on the hosting operating system.  This function never returns.\n",
      "\n",
      "    access(path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, effective_ids=False, follow_symlinks=True)\n",
      "        Use the real uid/gid to test for access to a path.\n",
      "\n",
      "          path\n",
      "            Path to be tested; can be string, bytes, or a path-like object.\n",
      "          mode\n",
      "            Operating-system mode bitfield.  Can be F_OK to test existence,\n",
      "            or the inclusive-OR of R_OK, W_OK, and X_OK.\n",
      "          dir_fd\n",
      "            If not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory,\n",
      "            and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that\n",
      "            directory.\n",
      "          effective_ids\n",
      "            If True, access will use the effective uid/gid instead of\n",
      "            the real uid/gid.\n",
      "          follow_symlinks\n",
      "            If False, and the last element of the path is a symbolic link,\n",
      "            access will examine the symbolic link itself instead of the file\n",
      "            the link points to.\n",
      "\n",
      "        dir_fd, effective_ids, and follow_symlinks may not be implemented\n",
      "          on your platform.  If they are unavailable, using them will raise a\n",
      "          NotImplementedError.\n",
      "\n",
      "        Note that most operations will use the effective uid/gid, therefore this\n",
      "          routine can be used in a suid/sgid environment to test if the invoking user\n",
      "          has the specified access to the path.\n",
      "\n",
      "    chdir(path)\n",
      "        Change the current working directory to the specified path.\n",
      "\n",
      "        path may always be specified as a string.\n",
      "        On some platforms, path may also be specified as an open file descriptor.\n",
      "          If this functionality is unavailable, using it raises an exception.\n",
      "\n",
      "    chmod(path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)\n",
      "        Change the access permissions of a file.\n",
      "\n",
      "          path\n",
      "            Path to be modified.  May always be specified as a str, bytes, or a path-like object.\n",
      "            On some platforms, path may also be specified as an open file descriptor.\n",
      "            If this functionality is unavailable, using it raises an exception.\n",
      "          mode\n",
      "            Operating-system mode bitfield.\n",
      "            Be careful when using number literals for *mode*. The conventional UNIX notation for\n",
      "            numeric modes uses an octal base, which needs to be indicated with a ``0o`` prefix in\n",
      "            Python.\n",
      "          dir_fd\n",
      "            If not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory,\n",
      "            and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that\n",
      "            directory.\n",
      "          follow_symlinks\n",
      "            If False, and the last element of the path is a symbolic link,\n",
      "            chmod will modify the symbolic link itself instead of the file\n",
      "            the link points to.\n",
      "\n",
      "        It is an error to use dir_fd or follow_symlinks when specifying path as\n",
      "          an open file descriptor.\n",
      "        dir_fd and follow_symlinks may not be implemented on your platform.\n",
      "          If they are unavailable, using them will raise a NotImplementedError.\n",
      "\n",
      "    close(fd)\n",
      "        Close a file descriptor.\n",
      "\n",
      "    closerange(fd_low, fd_high, /)\n",
      "        Closes all file descriptors in [fd_low, fd_high), ignoring errors.\n",
      "\n",
      "    cpu_count()\n",
      "        Return the number of CPUs in the system; return None if indeterminable.\n",
      "\n",
      "        This number is not equivalent to the number of CPUs the current process can\n",
      "        use.  The number of usable CPUs can be obtained with\n",
      "        ``len(os.sched_getaffinity(0))``\n",
      "\n",
      "    device_encoding(fd)\n",
      "        Return a string describing the encoding of a terminal's file descriptor.\n",
      "\n",
      "        The file descriptor must be attached to a terminal.\n",
      "        If the device is not a terminal, return None.\n",
      "\n",
      "    dup(fd, /)\n",
      "        Return a duplicate of a file descriptor.\n",
      "\n",
      "    dup2(fd, fd2, inheritable=True)\n",
      "        Duplicate file descriptor.\n",
      "\n",
      "    execl(file, *args)\n",
      "        execl(file, *args)\n",
      "\n",
      "        Execute the executable file with argument list args, replacing the\n",
      "        current process.\n",
      "\n",
      "    execle(file, *args)\n",
      "        execle(file, *args, env)\n",
      "\n",
      "        Execute the executable file with argument list args and\n",
      "        environment env, replacing the current process.\n",
      "\n",
      "    execlp(file, *args)\n",
      "        execlp(file, *args)\n",
      "\n",
      "        Execute the executable file (which is searched for along $PATH)\n",
      "        with argument list args, replacing the current process.\n",
      "\n",
      "    execlpe(file, *args)\n",
      "        execlpe(file, *args, env)\n",
      "\n",
      "        Execute the executable file (which is searched for along $PATH)\n",
      "        with argument list args and environment env, replacing the current\n",
      "        process.\n",
      "\n",
      "    execv(path, argv, /)\n",
      "        Execute an executable path with arguments, replacing current process.\n",
      "\n",
      "        path\n",
      "          Path of executable file.\n",
      "        argv\n",
      "          Tuple or list of strings.\n",
      "\n",
      "    execve(path, argv, env)\n",
      "        Execute an executable path with arguments, replacing current process.\n",
      "\n",
      "        path\n",
      "          Path of executable file.\n",
      "        argv\n",
      "          Tuple or list of strings.\n",
      "        env\n",
      "          Dictionary of strings mapping to strings.\n",
      "\n",
      "    execvp(file, args)\n",
      "        execvp(file, args)\n",
      "\n",
      "        Execute the executable file (which is searched for along $PATH)\n",
      "        with argument list args, replacing the current process.\n",
      "        args may be a list or tuple of strings.\n",
      "\n",
      "    execvpe(file, args, env)\n",
      "        execvpe(file, args, env)\n",
      "\n",
      "        Execute the executable file (which is searched for along $PATH)\n",
      "        with argument list args and environment env, replacing the\n",
      "        current process.\n",
      "        args may be a list or tuple of strings.\n",
      "\n",
      "    fdopen(fd, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None, *args, **kwargs)\n",
      "\n",
      "    fsdecode(filename)\n",
      "        Decode filename (an os.PathLike, bytes, or str) from the filesystem\n",
      "        encoding with 'surrogateescape' error handler, return str unchanged. On\n",
      "        Windows, use 'strict' error handler if the file system encoding is\n",
      "        'mbcs' (which is the default encoding).\n",
      "\n",
      "    fsencode(filename)\n",
      "        Encode filename (an os.PathLike, bytes, or str) to the filesystem\n",
      "        encoding with 'surrogateescape' error handler, return bytes unchanged.\n",
      "        On Windows, use 'strict' error handler if the file system encoding is\n",
      "        'mbcs' (which is the default encoding).\n",
      "\n",
      "    fspath(path)\n",
      "        Return the file system path representation of the object.\n",
      "\n",
      "        If the object is str or bytes, then allow it to pass through as-is. If the\n",
      "        object defines __fspath__(), then return the result of that method. All other\n",
      "        types raise a TypeError.\n",
      "\n",
      "    fstat(fd)\n",
      "        Perform a stat system call on the given file descriptor.\n",
      "\n",
      "        Like stat(), but for an open file descriptor.\n",
      "        Equivalent to os.stat(fd).\n",
      "\n",
      "    fsync(fd)\n",
      "        Force write of fd to disk.\n",
      "\n",
      "    ftruncate(fd, length, /)\n",
      "        Truncate a file, specified by file descriptor, to a specific length.\n",
      "\n",
      "    get_blocking(fd, /)\n",
      "        Get the blocking mode of the file descriptor.\n",
      "\n",
      "        Return False if the O_NONBLOCK flag is set, True if the flag is cleared.\n",
      "\n",
      "    get_exec_path(env=None)\n",
      "        Returns the sequence of directories that will be searched for the\n",
      "        named executable (similar to a shell) when launching a process.\n",
      "\n",
      "        *env* must be an environment variable dict or None.  If *env* is None,\n",
      "        os.environ will be used.\n",
      "\n",
      "    get_handle_inheritable(handle, /)\n",
      "        Get the close-on-exe flag of the specified file descriptor.\n",
      "\n",
      "    get_inheritable(fd, /)\n",
      "        Get the close-on-exe flag of the specified file descriptor.\n",
      "\n",
      "    get_terminal_size(...)\n",
      "        Return the size of the terminal window as (columns, lines).\n",
      "\n",
      "        The optional argument fd (default standard output) specifies\n",
      "        which file descriptor should be queried.\n",
      "\n",
      "        If the file descriptor is not connected to a terminal, an OSError\n",
      "        is thrown.\n",
      "\n",
      "        This function will only be defined if an implementation is\n",
      "        available for this system.\n",
      "\n",
      "        shutil.get_terminal_size is the high-level function which should\n",
      "        normally be used, os.get_terminal_size is the low-level implementation.\n",
      "\n",
      "    getcwd()\n",
      "        Return a unicode string representing the current working directory.\n",
      "\n",
      "    getcwdb()\n",
      "        Return a bytes string representing the current working directory.\n",
      "\n",
      "    getenv(key, default=None)\n",
      "        Get an environment variable, return None if it doesn't exist.\n",
      "        The optional second argument can specify an alternate default.\n",
      "        key, default and the result are str.\n",
      "\n",
      "    getlogin()\n",
      "        Return the actual login name.\n",
      "\n",
      "    getpid()\n",
      "        Return the current process id.\n",
      "\n",
      "    getppid()\n",
      "        Return the parent's process id.\n",
      "\n",
      "        If the parent process has already exited, Windows machines will still\n",
      "        return its id; others systems will return the id of the 'init' process (1).\n",
      "\n",
      "    isatty(fd, /)\n",
      "        Return True if the fd is connected to a terminal.\n",
      "\n",
      "        Return True if the file descriptor is an open file descriptor\n",
      "        connected to the slave end of a terminal.\n",
      "\n",
      "    kill(pid, signal, /)\n",
      "        Kill a process with a signal.\n",
      "\n",
      "    link(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)\n",
      "        Create a hard link to a file.\n",
      "\n",
      "        If either src_dir_fd or dst_dir_fd is not None, it should be a file\n",
      "          descriptor open to a directory, and the respective path string (src or dst)\n",
      "          should be relative; the path will then be relative to that directory.\n",
      "        If follow_symlinks is False, and the last element of src is a symbolic\n",
      "          link, link will create a link to the symbolic link itself instead of the\n",
      "          file the link points to.\n",
      "        src_dir_fd, dst_dir_fd, and follow_symlinks may not be implemented on your\n",
      "          platform.  If they are unavailable, using them will raise a\n",
      "          NotImplementedError.\n",
      "\n",
      "    listdir(path=None)\n",
      "        Return a list containing the names of the files in the directory.\n",
      "\n",
      "        path can be specified as either str, bytes, or a path-like object.  If path is bytes,\n",
      "          the filenames returned will also be bytes; in all other circumstances\n",
      "          the filenames returned will be str.\n",
      "        If path is None, uses the path='.'.\n",
      "        On some platforms, path may also be specified as an open file descriptor;\\\n",
      "          the file descriptor must refer to a directory.\n",
      "          If this functionality is unavailable, using it raises NotImplementedError.\n",
      "\n",
      "        The list is in arbitrary order.  It does not include the special\n",
      "        entries '.' and '..' even if they are present in the directory.\n",
      "\n",
      "    listdrives()\n",
      "        Return a list containing the names of drives in the system.\n",
      "\n",
      "        A drive name typically looks like 'C:\\\\'.\n",
      "\n",
      "    listmounts(volume)\n",
      "        Return a list containing mount points for a particular volume.\n",
      "\n",
      "        'volume' should be a GUID path as returned from os.listvolumes.\n",
      "\n",
      "    listvolumes()\n",
      "        Return a list containing the volumes in the system.\n",
      "\n",
      "        Volumes are typically represented as a GUID path.\n",
      "\n",
      "    lseek(fd, position, whence, /)\n",
      "        Set the position of a file descriptor.  Return the new position.\n",
      "\n",
      "          fd\n",
      "            An open file descriptor, as returned by os.open().\n",
      "          position\n",
      "            Position, interpreted relative to 'whence'.\n",
      "          whence\n",
      "            The relative position to seek from. Valid values are:\n",
      "            - SEEK_SET: seek from the start of the file.\n",
      "            - SEEK_CUR: seek from the current file position.\n",
      "            - SEEK_END: seek from the end of the file.\n",
      "\n",
      "        The return value is the number of bytes relative to the beginning of the file.\n",
      "\n",
      "    lstat(path, *, dir_fd=None)\n",
      "        Perform a stat system call on the given path, without following symbolic links.\n",
      "\n",
      "        Like stat(), but do not follow symbolic links.\n",
      "        Equivalent to stat(path, follow_symlinks=False).\n",
      "\n",
      "    makedirs(name, mode=511, exist_ok=False)\n",
      "        makedirs(name [, mode=0o777][, exist_ok=False])\n",
      "\n",
      "        Super-mkdir; create a leaf directory and all intermediate ones.  Works like\n",
      "        mkdir, except that any intermediate path segment (not just the rightmost)\n",
      "        will be created if it does not exist. If the target directory already\n",
      "        exists, raise an OSError if exist_ok is False. Otherwise no exception is\n",
      "        raised.  This is recursive.\n",
      "\n",
      "    mkdir(path, mode=511, *, dir_fd=None)\n",
      "        Create a directory.\n",
      "\n",
      "        If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory,\n",
      "          and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory.\n",
      "        dir_fd may not be implemented on your platform.\n",
      "          If it is unavailable, using it will raise a NotImplementedError.\n",
      "\n",
      "        The mode argument is ignored on Windows. Where it is used, the current umask\n",
      "        value is first masked out.\n",
      "\n",
      "    open(path, flags, mode=511, *, dir_fd=None)\n",
      "        Open a file for low level IO.  Returns a file descriptor (integer).\n",
      "\n",
      "        If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory,\n",
      "          and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory.\n",
      "        dir_fd may not be implemented on your platform.\n",
      "          If it is unavailable, using it will raise a NotImplementedError.\n",
      "\n",
      "    pipe()\n",
      "        Create a pipe.\n",
      "\n",
      "        Returns a tuple of two file descriptors:\n",
      "          (read_fd, write_fd)\n",
      "\n",
      "    popen(cmd, mode='r', buffering=-1)\n",
      "\n",
      "    putenv(name, value, /)\n",
      "        Change or add an environment variable.\n",
      "\n",
      "    read(fd, length, /)\n",
      "        Read from a file descriptor.  Returns a bytes object.\n",
      "\n",
      "    readlink(path, *, dir_fd=None)\n",
      "        Return a string representing the path to which the symbolic link points.\n",
      "\n",
      "        If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory,\n",
      "        and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory.\n",
      "\n",
      "        dir_fd may not be implemented on your platform.  If it is unavailable,\n",
      "        using it will raise a NotImplementedError.\n",
      "\n",
      "    remove(path, *, dir_fd=None)\n",
      "        Remove a file (same as unlink()).\n",
      "\n",
      "        If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory,\n",
      "          and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory.\n",
      "        dir_fd may not be implemented on your platform.\n",
      "          If it is unavailable, using it will raise a NotImplementedError.\n",
      "\n",
      "    removedirs(name)\n",
      "        removedirs(name)\n",
      "\n",
      "        Super-rmdir; remove a leaf directory and all empty intermediate\n",
      "        ones.  Works like rmdir except that, if the leaf directory is\n",
      "        successfully removed, directories corresponding to rightmost path\n",
      "        segments will be pruned away until either the whole path is\n",
      "        consumed or an error occurs.  Errors during this latter phase are\n",
      "        ignored -- they generally mean that a directory was not empty.\n",
      "\n",
      "    rename(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)\n",
      "        Rename a file or directory.\n",
      "\n",
      "        If either src_dir_fd or dst_dir_fd is not None, it should be a file\n",
      "          descriptor open to a directory, and the respective path string (src or dst)\n",
      "          should be relative; the path will then be relative to that directory.\n",
      "        src_dir_fd and dst_dir_fd, may not be implemented on your platform.\n",
      "          If they are unavailable, using them will raise a NotImplementedError.\n",
      "\n",
      "    renames(old, new)\n",
      "        renames(old, new)\n",
      "\n",
      "        Super-rename; create directories as necessary and delete any left\n",
      "        empty.  Works like rename, except creation of any intermediate\n",
      "        directories needed to make the new pathname good is attempted\n",
      "        first.  After the rename, directories corresponding to rightmost\n",
      "        path segments of the old name will be pruned until either the\n",
      "        whole path is consumed or a nonempty directory is found.\n",
      "\n",
      "        Note: this function can fail with the new directory structure made\n",
      "        if you lack permissions needed to unlink the leaf directory or\n",
      "        file.\n",
      "\n",
      "    replace(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)\n",
      "        Rename a file or directory, overwriting the destination.\n",
      "\n",
      "        If either src_dir_fd or dst_dir_fd is not None, it should be a file\n",
      "          descriptor open to a directory, and the respective path string (src or dst)\n",
      "          should be relative; the path will then be relative to that directory.\n",
      "        src_dir_fd and dst_dir_fd, may not be implemented on your platform.\n",
      "          If they are unavailable, using them will raise a NotImplementedError.\n",
      "\n",
      "    rmdir(path, *, dir_fd=None)\n",
      "        Remove a directory.\n",
      "\n",
      "        If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory,\n",
      "          and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory.\n",
      "        dir_fd may not be implemented on your platform.\n",
      "          If it is unavailable, using it will raise a NotImplementedError.\n",
      "\n",
      "    scandir(path=None)\n",
      "        Return an iterator of DirEntry objects for given path.\n",
      "\n",
      "        path can be specified as either str, bytes, or a path-like object.  If path\n",
      "        is bytes, the names of yielded DirEntry objects will also be bytes; in\n",
      "        all other circumstances they will be str.\n",
      "\n",
      "        If path is None, uses the path='.'.\n",
      "\n",
      "    set_blocking(fd, blocking, /)\n",
      "        Set the blocking mode of the specified file descriptor.\n",
      "\n",
      "        Set the O_NONBLOCK flag if blocking is False,\n",
      "        clear the O_NONBLOCK flag otherwise.\n",
      "\n",
      "    set_handle_inheritable(handle, inheritable, /)\n",
      "        Set the inheritable flag of the specified handle.\n",
      "\n",
      "    set_inheritable(fd, inheritable, /)\n",
      "        Set the inheritable flag of the specified file descriptor.\n",
      "\n",
      "    spawnl(mode, file, *args)\n",
      "        spawnl(mode, file, *args) -> integer\n",
      "\n",
      "        Execute file with arguments from args in a subprocess.\n",
      "        If mode == P_NOWAIT return the pid of the process.\n",
      "        If mode == P_WAIT return the process's exit code if it exits normally;\n",
      "        otherwise return -SIG, where SIG is the signal that killed it.\n",
      "\n",
      "    spawnle(mode, file, *args)\n",
      "        spawnle(mode, file, *args, env) -> integer\n",
      "\n",
      "        Execute file with arguments from args in a subprocess with the\n",
      "        supplied environment.\n",
      "        If mode == P_NOWAIT return the pid of the process.\n",
      "        If mode == P_WAIT return the process's exit code if it exits normally;\n",
      "        otherwise return -SIG, where SIG is the signal that killed it.\n",
      "\n",
      "    spawnv(mode, path, argv, /)\n",
      "        Execute the program specified by path in a new process.\n",
      "\n",
      "        mode\n",
      "          Mode of process creation.\n",
      "        path\n",
      "          Path of executable file.\n",
      "        argv\n",
      "          Tuple or list of strings.\n",
      "\n",
      "    spawnve(mode, path, argv, env, /)\n",
      "        Execute the program specified by path in a new process.\n",
      "\n",
      "        mode\n",
      "          Mode of process creation.\n",
      "        path\n",
      "          Path of executable file.\n",
      "        argv\n",
      "          Tuple or list of strings.\n",
      "        env\n",
      "          Dictionary of strings mapping to strings.\n",
      "\n",
      "    startfile(...)\n",
      "        Start a file with its associated application.\n",
      "\n",
      "        When \"operation\" is not specified or \"open\", this acts like\n",
      "        double-clicking the file in Explorer, or giving the file name as an\n",
      "        argument to the DOS \"start\" command: the file is opened with whatever\n",
      "        application (if any) its extension is associated.\n",
      "        When another \"operation\" is given, it specifies what should be done with\n",
      "        the file.  A typical operation is \"print\".\n",
      "\n",
      "        \"arguments\" is passed to the application, but should be omitted if the\n",
      "        file is a document.\n",
      "\n",
      "        \"cwd\" is the working directory for the operation. If \"filepath\" is\n",
      "        relative, it will be resolved against this directory. This argument\n",
      "        should usually be an absolute path.\n",
      "\n",
      "        \"show_cmd\" can be used to override the recommended visibility option.\n",
      "        See the Windows ShellExecute documentation for values.\n",
      "\n",
      "        startfile returns as soon as the associated application is launched.\n",
      "        There is no option to wait for the application to close, and no way\n",
      "        to retrieve the application's exit status.\n",
      "\n",
      "        The filepath is relative to the current directory.  If you want to use\n",
      "        an absolute path, make sure the first character is not a slash (\"/\");\n",
      "        the underlying Win32 ShellExecute function doesn't work if it is.\n",
      "\n",
      "    stat(path, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)\n",
      "        Perform a stat system call on the given path.\n",
      "\n",
      "          path\n",
      "            Path to be examined; can be string, bytes, a path-like object or\n",
      "            open-file-descriptor int.\n",
      "          dir_fd\n",
      "            If not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory,\n",
      "            and path should be a relative string; path will then be relative to\n",
      "            that directory.\n",
      "          follow_symlinks\n",
      "            If False, and the last element of the path is a symbolic link,\n",
      "            stat will examine the symbolic link itself instead of the file\n",
      "            the link points to.\n",
      "\n",
      "        dir_fd and follow_symlinks may not be implemented\n",
      "          on your platform.  If they are unavailable, using them will raise a\n",
      "          NotImplementedError.\n",
      "\n",
      "        It's an error to use dir_fd or follow_symlinks when specifying path as\n",
      "          an open file descriptor.\n",
      "\n",
      "    strerror(code, /)\n",
      "        Translate an error code to a message string.\n",
      "\n",
      "    symlink(src, dst, target_is_directory=False, *, dir_fd=None)\n",
      "        Create a symbolic link pointing to src named dst.\n",
      "\n",
      "        target_is_directory is required on Windows if the target is to be\n",
      "          interpreted as a directory.  (On Windows, symlink requires\n",
      "          Windows 6.0 or greater, and raises a NotImplementedError otherwise.)\n",
      "          target_is_directory is ignored on non-Windows platforms.\n",
      "\n",
      "        If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory,\n",
      "          and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory.\n",
      "        dir_fd may not be implemented on your platform.\n",
      "          If it is unavailable, using it will raise a NotImplementedError.\n",
      "\n",
      "    system(command)\n",
      "        Execute the command in a subshell.\n",
      "\n",
      "    times()\n",
      "        Return a collection containing process timing information.\n",
      "\n",
      "        The object returned behaves like a named tuple with these fields:\n",
      "          (utime, stime, cutime, cstime, elapsed_time)\n",
      "        All fields are floating point numbers.\n",
      "\n",
      "    truncate(path, length)\n",
      "        Truncate a file, specified by path, to a specific length.\n",
      "\n",
      "        On some platforms, path may also be specified as an open file descriptor.\n",
      "          If this functionality is unavailable, using it raises an exception.\n",
      "\n",
      "    umask(mask, /)\n",
      "        Set the current numeric umask and return the previous umask.\n",
      "\n",
      "    unlink(path, *, dir_fd=None)\n",
      "        Remove a file (same as remove()).\n",
      "\n",
      "        If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory,\n",
      "          and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory.\n",
      "        dir_fd may not be implemented on your platform.\n",
      "          If it is unavailable, using it will raise a NotImplementedError.\n",
      "\n",
      "    unsetenv(name, /)\n",
      "        Delete an environment variable.\n",
      "\n",
      "    urandom(size, /)\n",
      "        Return a bytes object containing random bytes suitable for cryptographic use.\n",
      "\n",
      "    utime(...)\n",
      "        Set the access and modified time of path.\n",
      "\n",
      "        path may always be specified as a string.\n",
      "        On some platforms, path may also be specified as an open file descriptor.\n",
      "          If this functionality is unavailable, using it raises an exception.\n",
      "\n",
      "        If times is not None, it must be a tuple (atime, mtime);\n",
      "            atime and mtime should be expressed as float seconds since the epoch.\n",
      "        If ns is specified, it must be a tuple (atime_ns, mtime_ns);\n",
      "            atime_ns and mtime_ns should be expressed as integer nanoseconds\n",
      "            since the epoch.\n",
      "        If times is None and ns is unspecified, utime uses the current time.\n",
      "        Specifying tuples for both times and ns is an error.\n",
      "\n",
      "        If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory,\n",
      "          and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory.\n",
      "        If follow_symlinks is False, and the last element of the path is a symbolic\n",
      "          link, utime will modify the symbolic link itself instead of the file the\n",
      "          link points to.\n",
      "        It is an error to use dir_fd or follow_symlinks when specifying path\n",
      "          as an open file descriptor.\n",
      "        dir_fd and follow_symlinks may not be available on your platform.\n",
      "          If they are unavailable, using them will raise a NotImplementedError.\n",
      "\n",
      "    waitpid(pid, options, /)\n",
      "        Wait for completion of a given process.\n",
      "\n",
      "        Returns a tuple of information regarding the process:\n",
      "            (pid, status << 8)\n",
      "\n",
      "        The options argument is ignored on Windows.\n",
      "\n",
      "    waitstatus_to_exitcode(status)\n",
      "        Convert a wait status to an exit code.\n",
      "\n",
      "        On Unix:\n",
      "\n",
      "        * If WIFEXITED(status) is true, return WEXITSTATUS(status).\n",
      "        * If WIFSIGNALED(status) is true, return -WTERMSIG(status).\n",
      "        * Otherwise, raise a ValueError.\n",
      "\n",
      "        On Windows, return status shifted right by 8 bits.\n",
      "\n",
      "        On Unix, if the process is being traced or if waitpid() was called with\n",
      "        WUNTRACED option, the caller must first check if WIFSTOPPED(status) is true.\n",
      "        This function must not be called if WIFSTOPPED(status) is true.\n",
      "\n",
      "    walk(top, topdown=True, onerror=None, followlinks=False)\n",
      "        Directory tree generator.\n",
      "\n",
      "        For each directory in the directory tree rooted at top (including top\n",
      "        itself, but excluding '.' and '..'), yields a 3-tuple\n",
      "\n",
      "            dirpath, dirnames, filenames\n",
      "\n",
      "        dirpath is a string, the path to the directory.  dirnames is a list of\n",
      "        the names of the subdirectories in dirpath (including symlinks to directories,\n",
      "        and excluding '.' and '..').\n",
      "        filenames is a list of the names of the non-directory files in dirpath.\n",
      "        Note that the names in the lists are just names, with no path components.\n",
      "        To get a full path (which begins with top) to a file or directory in\n",
      "        dirpath, do os.path.join(dirpath, name).\n",
      "\n",
      "        If optional arg 'topdown' is true or not specified, the triple for a\n",
      "        directory is generated before the triples for any of its subdirectories\n",
      "        (directories are generated top down).  If topdown is false, the triple\n",
      "        for a directory is generated after the triples for all of its\n",
      "        subdirectories (directories are generated bottom up).\n",
      "\n",
      "        When topdown is true, the caller can modify the dirnames list in-place\n",
      "        (e.g., via del or slice assignment), and walk will only recurse into the\n",
      "        subdirectories whose names remain in dirnames; this can be used to prune the\n",
      "        search, or to impose a specific order of visiting.  Modifying dirnames when\n",
      "        topdown is false has no effect on the behavior of os.walk(), since the\n",
      "        directories in dirnames have already been generated by the time dirnames\n",
      "        itself is generated. No matter the value of topdown, the list of\n",
      "        subdirectories is retrieved before the tuples for the directory and its\n",
      "        subdirectories are generated.\n",
      "\n",
      "        By default errors from the os.scandir() call are ignored.  If\n",
      "        optional arg 'onerror' is specified, it should be a function; it\n",
      "        will be called with one argument, an OSError instance.  It can\n",
      "        report the error to continue with the walk, or raise the exception\n",
      "        to abort the walk.  Note that the filename is available as the\n",
      "        filename attribute of the exception object.\n",
      "\n",
      "        By default, os.walk does not follow symbolic links to subdirectories on\n",
      "        systems that support them.  In order to get this functionality, set the\n",
      "        optional argument 'followlinks' to true.\n",
      "\n",
      "        Caution:  if you pass a relative pathname for top, don't change the\n",
      "        current working directory between resumptions of walk.  walk never\n",
      "        changes the current directory, and assumes that the client doesn't\n",
      "        either.\n",
      "\n",
      "        Example:\n",
      "\n",
      "        import os\n",
      "        from os.path import join, getsize\n",
      "        for root, dirs, files in os.walk('python/Lib/email'):\n",
      "            print(root, \"consumes \")\n",
      "            print(sum(getsize(join(root, name)) for name in files), end=\" \")\n",
      "            print(\"bytes in\", len(files), \"non-directory files\")\n",
      "            if 'CVS' in dirs:\n",
      "                dirs.remove('CVS')  # don't visit CVS directories\n",
      "\n",
      "    write(fd, data, /)\n",
      "        Write a bytes object to a file descriptor.\n",
      "\n",
      "DATA\n",
      "    EX_OK = 0\n",
      "    F_OK = 0\n",
      "    O_APPEND = 8\n",
      "    O_BINARY = 32768\n",
      "    O_CREAT = 256\n",
      "    O_EXCL = 1024\n",
      "    O_NOINHERIT = 128\n",
      "    O_RANDOM = 16\n",
      "    O_RDONLY = 0\n",
      "    O_RDWR = 2\n",
      "    O_SEQUENTIAL = 32\n",
      "    O_SHORT_LIVED = 4096\n",
      "    O_TEMPORARY = 64\n",
      "    O_TEXT = 16384\n",
      "    O_TRUNC = 512\n",
      "    O_WRONLY = 1\n",
      "    P_DETACH = 4\n",
      "    P_NOWAIT = 1\n",
      "    P_NOWAITO = 3\n",
      "    P_OVERLAY = 2\n",
      "    P_WAIT = 0\n",
      "    R_OK = 4\n",
      "    SEEK_CUR = 1\n",
      "    SEEK_END = 2\n",
      "    SEEK_SET = 0\n",
      "    TMP_MAX = 2147483647\n",
      "    W_OK = 2\n",
      "    X_OK = 1\n",
      "    __all__ = ['altsep', 'curdir', 'pardir', 'sep', 'pathsep', 'linesep', ...\n",
      "    altsep = '/'\n",
      "    curdir = '.'\n",
      "    defpath = r'.;C:\\bin'\n",
      "    devnull = 'nul'\n",
      "    environ = environ({'ALLUSERSPROFILE': 'C:\\\\ProgramData', '...D': 'modu...\n",
      "    extsep = '.'\n",
      "    linesep = '\\r\\n'\n",
      "    name = 'nt'\n",
      "    pardir = '..'\n",
      "    pathsep = ';'\n",
      "    sep = r'\\'\n",
      "    supports_bytes_environ = False\n",
      "\n",
      "FILE\n",
      "    c:\\users\\phili\\anaconda3\\envs\\vscode-env\\lib\\os.py\n",
      "\n",
      "\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "help(os)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Attributes"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The ```os.name``` attribute will give the name of the operating system. ```nt``` for Windows and ```posix``` for Linux. On this Windows machine:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 8,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'nt'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 8,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.name"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "```os.path.curdir```, also available as ```os.curdir``` is the current directory:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 9,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'.'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 9,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.curdir"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "```os.path.pardir```, also available as ```os.pardir``` is the parent directory:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 10,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'..'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 10,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.pardir"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "These have the same values on Windows and Linux so ```.``` and ```..``` are commonly used directly."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "```os.path.extsep```, also available as ```os.extsep``` is the extension separator which splits the file name from the file extension:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 11,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'.'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 11,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.extsep"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "```os.path.sep```, also available as ```os.sep``` is the separator which splits each directory name:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 12,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'\\\\'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 12,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.sep"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "```os.sep``` is OS specific. Windows uses the backslash ```\\``` while Linux uses the forward slash ```/```. \n",
    "\n",
    "In Python ```\\``` is used to insert an escape character into a ```str``` instance and therefore this is shown as ```\\\\```, note that the escape character is processed when this escape sequence is printed:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 13,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "\\\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(os.sep)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "On Windows this notebook file is found in:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 14,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'.\\\\notebook.ipynb'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 14,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "'.\\\\notebook.ipynb'"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "On Linux this notebook file is found in:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 15,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'./notebook.ipynb'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 15,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "'./notebook.ipynb'"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "When expressed using the constants below the representation appropriate for each Operating System will display:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 16,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'.\\\\notebook.ipynb'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 16,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.curdir + os.sep + 'notebook' + os.extsep +'ipynb'"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "```os.path.altsep```, also available as ```os.altsep``` is the alternative separator which splits each directory name:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 17,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'/'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 17,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.altsep"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "```os.linesep``` is an attribute for the line separator in a file:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 18,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'\\r\\n'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 18,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.linesep"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "There is again a slight difference on Windows and Linux. Windows uses ```'\\r\\n'``` and Linux uses ```'\\n'```:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "My ```%UserProfile%``` on this Windows computer is found in:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 19,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'C:\\\\Users\\\\Phili'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 19,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "'C:\\\\Users\\\\Phili'"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "This can be simplified using a raw string:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 20,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'C:\\\\Users\\\\Philip'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 20,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r'C:\\Users\\Philip'"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Alternatively it could be constructed using:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 21,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'C:\\\\Users\\\\Philip'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 21,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "'C:' + os.sep + 'Users' + os.sep + 'Philip' "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "It is error prone to manually place backslashes as it is easy to miss one or include one additional. The  ```os.path.join``` function will automatically include separators however unfortunately does not add a separator properly after the drive, unless the separator has been manually specified:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 22,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'C:\\\\Users\\\\Philip'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 22,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.path.join('C:', os.sep, 'Users', 'Philip')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Environmental Variables"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "**Hardcoding an absolute path like the above is bad practice.** If a file is being searched for using the absolute path above, the code will work on my computer but it won't work on yours because your user profile will be different. ```os.environ``` is a ```dict``` instance which is used to access environmental variables. An environmental variable is a relative location on your computer, for example your userprofile:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 23,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "environ{'ALLUSERSPROFILE': 'C:\\\\ProgramData',\n",
       "        'APPDATA': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\AppData\\\\Roaming',\n",
       "        'COMMONPROGRAMFILES': 'C:\\\\Program Files\\\\Common Files',\n",
       "        'COMMONPROGRAMFILES(X86)': 'C:\\\\Program Files (x86)\\\\Common Files',\n",
       "        'COMMONPROGRAMW6432': 'C:\\\\Program Files\\\\Common Files',\n",
       "        'COMPUTERNAME': 'PC',\n",
       "        'COMSPEC': 'C:\\\\Windows\\\\system32\\\\cmd.exe',\n",
       "        'CONDA_DEFAULT_ENV': 'vscode-env',\n",
       "        'CONDA_EXE': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\Anaconda3\\\\Scripts\\\\conda.exe',\n",
       "        'CONDA_PREFIX': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\Anaconda3\\\\envs\\\\vscode-env',\n",
       "        'CONDA_PREFIX_1': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\Anaconda3',\n",
       "        'CONDA_PREFIX_2': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\anaconda3',\n",
       "        'CONDA_PROMPT_MODIFIER': '(vscode-env) ',\n",
       "        'CONDA_PYTHON_EXE': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\Anaconda3\\\\python.exe',\n",
       "        'CONDA_SHLVL': '3',\n",
       "        'DRIVERDATA': 'C:\\\\Windows\\\\System32\\\\Drivers\\\\DriverData',\n",
       "        'EFC_7052': '1',\n",
       "        'HOMEDRIVE': 'C:',\n",
       "        'HOMEPATH': '\\\\Users\\\\phili',\n",
       "        'IGCCSVC_DB': 'AQAAANCMnd8BFdERjHoAwE/Cl+sBAAAA87XEb+XIKkSKpN9rCtX76AQAAAACAAAAAAAQZgAAAAEAACAAAAAjPGvaKuM3X8RKYhzRd8R1tkpZPrsTZkoFepfTbNqUqQAAAAAOgAAAAAIAACAAAAD4QvQtYFwpkeXindFE3RPSOYdh9q06OgXZQo2RiryQ5WAAAADilXERwcVROZ9vixjHMTHFHoBzrqrTwPU6jCf7cKdxrd0GY7Z6YJAuOq971ENomNhmIrCRkzxKT+h274SpS4EiM0YW4Pq29Nb5p09y6Qb8g/VQD+FQUf+QETEZGtHhgHJAAAAAanYCFuGV87Wl9dX8dcChM24ym+RV549wZogEfSXl+92HKKJfOkbw2JYXfUUtjooRJhLhtN/8RLwLQzuGdgDQjQ==',\n",
       "        'LOCALAPPDATA': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\AppData\\\\Local',\n",
       "        'LOGONSERVER': '\\\\\\\\PC',\n",
       "        'NUMBER_OF_PROCESSORS': '8',\n",
       "        'ONEDRIVE': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\OneDrive',\n",
       "        'ONEDRIVECONSUMER': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\OneDrive',\n",
       "        'OS': 'Windows_NT',\n",
       "        'PATH': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\Anaconda3\\\\envs\\\\vscode-env;C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\Anaconda3\\\\envs\\\\vscode-env\\\\Library\\\\mingw-w64\\\\bin;C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\Anaconda3\\\\envs\\\\vscode-env\\\\Library\\\\usr\\\\bin;C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\Anaconda3\\\\envs\\\\vscode-env\\\\Library\\\\bin;C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\Anaconda3\\\\envs\\\\vscode-env\\\\Scripts;C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\Anaconda3\\\\envs\\\\vscode-env\\\\bin;C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\Anaconda3\\\\condabin;C:\\\\Windows\\\\system32;C:\\\\Windows;C:\\\\Windows\\\\System32\\\\Wbem;C:\\\\Windows\\\\System32\\\\WindowsPowerShell\\\\v1.0;C:\\\\Windows\\\\System32\\\\OpenSSH;C:\\\\Program Files (x86)\\\\Windows Live\\\\Shared;C:\\\\Program Files\\\\gs\\\\gs10.02.1\\\\bin;C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\anaconda3;C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\anaconda3\\\\Library\\\\mingw-w64\\\\bin;C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\anaconda3\\\\Library\\\\usr\\\\bin;C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\anaconda3\\\\Library\\\\bin;C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\anaconda3\\\\Scripts;C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\AppData\\\\Local\\\\Microsoft\\\\WindowsApps;C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\AppData\\\\Local\\\\GitHubDesktop\\\\bin;C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\AppData\\\\Local\\\\Programs\\\\Microsoft VS Code\\\\bin;C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\AppData\\\\Local\\\\Programs\\\\Microsoft VS Code Insiders\\\\bin',\n",
       "        'PATHEXT': '.COM;.EXE;.BAT;.CMD;.VBS;.VBE;.JS;.JSE;.WSF;.WSH;.MSC;.CPL',\n",
       "        'PROCESSOR_ARCHITECTURE': 'AMD64',\n",
       "        'PROCESSOR_IDENTIFIER': 'Intel64 Family 6 Model 140 Stepping 1, GenuineIntel',\n",
       "        'PROCESSOR_LEVEL': '6',\n",
       "        'PROCESSOR_REVISION': '8c01',\n",
       "        'PROGRAMDATA': 'C:\\\\ProgramData',\n",
       "        'PROGRAMFILES': 'C:\\\\Program Files',\n",
       "        'PROGRAMFILES(X86)': 'C:\\\\Program Files (x86)',\n",
       "        'PROGRAMW6432': 'C:\\\\Program Files',\n",
       "        'PSEXECUTIONPOLICYPREFERENCE': 'Bypass',\n",
       "        'PSMODULEPATH': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\OneDrive\\\\Documents\\\\WindowsPowerShell\\\\Modules;C:\\\\Program Files\\\\WindowsPowerShell\\\\Modules;C:\\\\Windows\\\\system32\\\\WindowsPowerShell\\\\v1.0\\\\Modules',\n",
       "        'PUBLIC': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\Public',\n",
       "        'SESSIONNAME': 'Console',\n",
       "        'SYSTEMDRIVE': 'C:',\n",
       "        'SYSTEMROOT': 'C:\\\\Windows',\n",
       "        'TEMP': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\AppData\\\\Local\\\\Temp',\n",
       "        'TMP': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\AppData\\\\Local\\\\Temp',\n",
       "        'USERDOMAIN': 'PC',\n",
       "        'USERDOMAIN_ROAMINGPROFILE': 'PC',\n",
       "        'USERNAME': 'phili',\n",
       "        'USERPROFILE': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili',\n",
       "        'WINDIR': 'C:\\\\Windows',\n",
       "        'XML_CATALOG_FILES': 'file:///C:/Users/phili/Anaconda3/envs/vscode-env/etc/xml/catalog',\n",
       "        'ZES_ENABLE_SYSMAN': '1',\n",
       "        '_CONDA_EXE': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\Anaconda3\\\\Scripts\\\\conda.exe',\n",
       "        '_CONDA_ROOT': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\Anaconda3',\n",
       "        'PYDEVD_USE_FRAME_EVAL': 'NO',\n",
       "        'JPY_SESSION_NAME': 'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\OneDrive\\\\Documents\\\\GitHub\\\\python-notebooks\\\\os_module\\\\notebook.ipynb',\n",
       "        'JPY_INTERRUPT_EVENT': '6800',\n",
       "        'IPY_INTERRUPT_EVENT': '6800',\n",
       "        'JPY_PARENT_PID': '5072',\n",
       "        'TERM': 'xterm-color',\n",
       "        'CLICOLOR': '1',\n",
       "        'FORCE_COLOR': '1',\n",
       "        'CLICOLOR_FORCE': '1',\n",
       "        'PAGER': 'cat',\n",
       "        'GIT_PAGER': 'cat',\n",
       "        'MPLBACKEND': 'module://matplotlib_inline.backend_inline'}"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 23,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.environ"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Although the ```dict``` instance can be indexed into, using the function ```os.getenv``` is generally preferred as a ```KeyError``` won't display for an unrecognised key, this is important as the ```'USERPROFILE'``` environmental variable doesn't exist on Linux:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 24,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 24,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.getenv('USERPROFILE')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "In Windows, the environmental Variables are normally upper case and enclosed in ```%```. The ```os.path.expandvars``` function can also be used to expand an environmental variable in that format. This function works on Windows but not on Linux:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 25,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\Documents'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 25,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.path.expandvars('%USERPROFILE%' + os.sep + 'Documents')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The ```os.path.expanduser``` function is more commonly used as it works on Windows and on Linux as ```'~'```"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 26,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 26,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.path.expanduser('~') "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Care needs to be taken with separators with this function:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 27,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\Documents'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 27,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.path.expanduser('~' + os.sep + 'Documents') "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "For this reason it is commonly used with ```os.path.join```:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 28,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "userprofile = os.path.expanduser('~')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 29,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\Documents'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 29,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.path.join(userprofile, 'Documents')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The current working directory can be found using the ```os.getcwd```:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 30,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\OneDrive\\\\Documents\\\\GitHub\\\\python-notebooks\\\\os_module'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 30,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.getcwd()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## File Operations"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The files and subdirectories in this directory can be listed using the ```os.listdir``` function:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 31,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['.ipynb_checkpoints',\n",
       " 'categorize_identifiers.py',\n",
       " 'images',\n",
       " 'notebook.ipynb',\n",
       " 'text.txt',\n",
       " '__pycache__']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 31,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "This will by default be the folder containing the Interactive Python Notebook file. The directory can be changed using the ```os``` function ```chdir``` for example to the parent directory using ```..``` or ```os.pardir```:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 32,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "os.chdir(os.pardir)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 33,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\OneDrive\\\\Documents\\\\GitHub\\\\python-notebooks'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 33,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.getcwd()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "This parent directory can be assigned to a variable using the ```os``` function ```getcwd```:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 34,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "parent = os.getcwd()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 35,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<div>\n",
       "<style scoped>\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th:only-of-type {\n",
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       "\n",
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       "\n",
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       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
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       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>Instance Name</th>\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>parent</th>\n",
       "      <td>str</td>\n",
       "      <td>57</td>\n",
       "      <td>C:\\Users\\phili\\OneDrive\\Documents\\GitHub\\python-notebooks</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "              Type  Size/Shape  \\\n",
       "Instance Name                    \n",
       "parent         str          57   \n",
       "\n",
       "                                                                   Value  \n",
       "Instance Name                                                             \n",
       "parent         C:\\Users\\phili\\OneDrive\\Documents\\GitHub\\python-notebooks  "
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 35,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "variables(['parent'])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "And the ```os.path``` function ```join``` can be used to join this with the folder and the name of the notebook itself:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 36,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "notebook_path = os.path.join(parent, 'os_module', 'notebook' + os.extsep + 'ipynb')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 37,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<div>\n",
       "<style scoped>\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th:only-of-type {\n",
       "        vertical-align: middle;\n",
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       "\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th {\n",
       "        vertical-align: top;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe thead th {\n",
       "        text-align: right;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "</style>\n",
       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>Type</th>\n",
       "      <th>Size/Shape</th>\n",
       "      <th>Value</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>Instance Name</th>\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>notebook_path</th>\n",
       "      <td>str</td>\n",
       "      <td>82</td>\n",
       "      <td>C:\\Users\\phili\\OneDrive\\Documents\\GitHub\\python-notebooks\\os_module\\notebook.ipynb</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "              Type  Size/Shape  \\\n",
       "Instance Name                    \n",
       "notebook_path  str          82   \n",
       "\n",
       "                                                                                            Value  \n",
       "Instance Name                                                                                      \n",
       "notebook_path  C:\\Users\\phili\\OneDrive\\Documents\\GitHub\\python-notebooks\\os_module\\notebook.ipynb  "
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 37,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "variables(['notebook_path'])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The ```os.path``` function ```exists``` can be used to check whether a file exists returning a boolean:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 38,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 38,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.path.exists(notebook_path)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The ```os.path``` function ```split``` returns a ```tuple``` where the first element is the directory of the file and the second element is the file including the file extension:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 39,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "('C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\OneDrive\\\\Documents\\\\GitHub\\\\python-notebooks\\\\os_module',\n",
       " 'notebook.ipynb')"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 39,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.path.split(notebook_path)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 40,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "file_path, file = os.path.split(notebook_path)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 41,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<div>\n",
       "<style scoped>\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th:only-of-type {\n",
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       "\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th {\n",
       "        vertical-align: top;\n",
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       "\n",
       "    .dataframe thead th {\n",
       "        text-align: right;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "</style>\n",
       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>Type</th>\n",
       "      <th>Size/Shape</th>\n",
       "      <th>Value</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>Instance Name</th>\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>file_path</th>\n",
       "      <td>str</td>\n",
       "      <td>67</td>\n",
       "      <td>C:\\Users\\phili\\OneDrive\\Documents\\GitHub\\python-notebooks\\os_module</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>file</th>\n",
       "      <td>str</td>\n",
       "      <td>14</td>\n",
       "      <td>notebook.ipynb</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "              Type  Size/Shape  \\\n",
       "Instance Name                    \n",
       "file_path      str          67   \n",
       "file           str          14   \n",
       "\n",
       "                                                                             Value  \n",
       "Instance Name                                                                       \n",
       "file_path      C:\\Users\\phili\\OneDrive\\Documents\\GitHub\\python-notebooks\\os_module  \n",
       "file                                                                notebook.ipynb  "
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 41,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "variables(['file_path', 'file'])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The ```os.path.splitext``` function splits a file path from its file extension, once again returning a 2 element ```tuple``` where the first element is the file path including the file name and the second element is the extension respectively:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 42,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "('notebook', '.ipynb')"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 42,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.path.splitext(file)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 43,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "('C:\\\\Users\\\\phili\\\\OneDrive\\\\Documents\\\\GitHub\\\\python-notebooks\\\\os_module\\\\notebook',\n",
       " '.ipynb')"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 43,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.path.splitext(notebook_path)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The current working directory can be changed to the folder of this notebook file:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 44,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "os.chdir(file_path)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The contents can be listed using:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 45,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['.ipynb_checkpoints',\n",
       " 'categorize_identifiers.py',\n",
       " 'images',\n",
       " 'notebook.ipynb',\n",
       " 'text.txt',\n",
       " '__pycache__']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 45,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "A directory can be made using the ```os``` function make directory ```mkdir```. Here a check will be made to see if the directory exists and if it doesn't to create it:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 46,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "if not os.path.exists('directory1'):\n",
    "    os.mkdir('directory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 47,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "if not os.path.exists('directory2'):\n",
    "    os.mkdir('directory2')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 48,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['.ipynb_checkpoints',\n",
       " 'categorize_identifiers.py',\n",
       " 'directory1',\n",
       " 'directory2',\n",
       " 'images',\n",
       " 'notebook.ipynb',\n",
       " 'text.txt',\n",
       " '__pycache__']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 48,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "```'directory2'``` can be removed using the ```os``` command remove directory ```rmdir```:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 49,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "os.rmdir('directory2')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 50,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['.ipynb_checkpoints',\n",
       " 'categorize_identifiers.py',\n",
       " 'directory1',\n",
       " 'images',\n",
       " 'notebook.ipynb',\n",
       " 'text.txt',\n",
       " '__pycache__']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 50,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The current working directory can be changed to ```directory1```:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 51,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "os.chdir('directory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 52,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 52,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "And a file can be created, this time using ```newline=os.linesep``` selecting the defaults of the operating system:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 53,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "with open('text.txt', mode='w', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict', newline=os.linesep) as file:\n",
    "    file.write('Hello World!\\nBye World!')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "A Python file can be created in the same manner:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 54,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "with open('script.py', mode='w', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict', newline=os.linesep) as file:\n",
    "    file.write(\"print('Hello World!')\\n\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "These files can be seen:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 55,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['script.py', 'text.txt']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 55,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "If the parent folder is selected using:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 56,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "os.chdir(os.pardir)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "If this folder is attempted to be deleted using ```rmdir``` an ```OSError: The directory is not empty``` will display:\n",
    "\n",
    "```python\n",
    "os.rmdir('directory1')\n",
    "```"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "This is done as a background check to make sure files aren't also accidently deleted. Individual files can be deleted using the ```os.remove``` function:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 57,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "os.remove('directory1' + os.sep + 'text.txt')\n",
    "os.remove('directory1' + os.sep + 'script.py')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "And now because it is empty it can be deleted:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 58,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "os.rmdir('directory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The ```os.makedirs``` function is more powerful and can be used to create multiple subfolders:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 59,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "os.makedirs('directory1' + os.sep + 'subdirectory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 60,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['.ipynb_checkpoints',\n",
       " 'categorize_identifiers.py',\n",
       " 'directory1',\n",
       " 'images',\n",
       " 'notebook.ipynb',\n",
       " 'text.txt',\n",
       " '__pycache__']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 60,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 61,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['subdirectory1']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 61,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir('directory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 62,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 62,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir('directory1' + os.sep + 'subdirectory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The ```os.removedirs``` function can be used to remove a directory of empty subdirectories:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 63,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "os.removedirs('directory1' + os.sep + 'subdirectory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The ```os.replace``` function can be used to replace a source with a destination, in essence allowing renaming of a directory or file:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 64,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "if not os.path.exists('directory1'):\n",
    "    os.makedirs('directory1' + os.sep + 'subdirectory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 65,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "file_path = os.path.join(os.getcwd(), 'directory1', 'subdirectory1', 'script.py')\n",
    "\n",
    "with open(file_path, mode='w', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict', newline=os.linesep) as file:\n",
    "    file.write(\"print('Hello World!')\\n\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 66,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['subdirectory1']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 66,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir('directory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 67,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['script.py']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 67,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir('directory1' + os.sep + 'subdirectory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "This script file can be renamed using:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 68,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "source =  os.path.join(os.getcwd(), 'directory1', 'subdirectory1', 'script.py')\n",
    "destination = os.path.join(os.getcwd(), 'directory1', 'subdirectory1', 'pscript.py')\n",
    "os.replace(source, destination)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 69,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['subdirectory1']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 69,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir('directory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 70,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['pscript.py']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 70,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir('directory1' + os.sep + 'subdirectory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "It can also be renamed and moved:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 71,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "source = os.path.join(os.getcwd(), 'directory1', 'subdirectory1', 'pscript.py')\n",
    "destination = os.path.join(os.getcwd(), 'directory1', 'script.py')\n",
    "os.replace(source, destination)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 72,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['script.py', 'subdirectory1']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 72,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir('directory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 73,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 73,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir('directory1' + os.sep + 'subdirectory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Another Python script file can be created:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 74,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "file_path = os.path.join(os.getcwd(), 'directory1', 'subdirectory1', 'script1.py')\n",
    "\n",
    "with open(file_path, mode='w', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict', newline=os.linesep) as file:\n",
    "    file.write(\"print('Hello World!')\\n\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Its contents can be seen using ```os.listdir```:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 75,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['script.py', 'subdirectory1']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 75,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir('directory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 76,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['script1.py']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 76,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "os.listdir('directory1' + os.sep + 'subdirectory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Walk"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The ```os.walk``` function can be used to create a generator:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 77,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<generator object walk at 0x00000245C9EBAB60>"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 77,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "forward = os.walk('directory1')\n",
    "forward"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "When next is used a three element ```tuple``` is generated of the parent folder, a list of subfolders and a list of files:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 78,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "('directory1', ['subdirectory1'], ['script.py'])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 78,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "next(forward)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 79,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "('directory1\\\\subdirectory1', [], ['script1.py'])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 79,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "next(forward)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "This is typically used in a loop:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 80,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "directory1\n",
      "\t ['subdirectory1']\n",
      "\t ['script.py']\n",
      "directory1\\subdirectory1\n",
      "\t []\n",
      "\t ['script1.py']\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "top = os.walk('directory1')\n",
    "for root, dirs, files in top:\n",
    "    print(root, end='\\n')\n",
    "    print('\\t', dirs)\n",
    "    print('\\t', files)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The ```topdown``` input argument can be assigned to ```False``` showing longer file paths first:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 81,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "directory1\\subdirectory1\n",
      "\t []\n",
      "\t ['script1.py']\n",
      "directory1\n",
      "\t ['subdirectory1']\n",
      "\t ['script.py']\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "top = os.walk('directory1', topdown=False)\n",
    "for root, dirs, files in top:\n",
    "    print(root, end='\\n')\n",
    "    print('\\t', dirs)\n",
    "    print('\\t', files)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "This can be used in with a number of nested ```for``` loops for example to recursively delete all files and subdirectories within a directory: "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 82,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "for root, dirs, files in os.walk('directory1', topdown=False):\n",
    "    for name in files:\n",
    "        os.remove(os.path.join(root, name))\n",
    "    for name in dirs:\n",
    "        os.rmdir(os.path.join(root, name))\n",
    "        \n",
    "os.rmdir('directory1')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "[Return to Python Tutorials](../readme.md)"
   ]
  }
 ],
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