This repository contains practice exercises and projects related to networking concepts, as part of the curriculum at 42 School. These exercises are designed to help students grasp various networking principles and protocols, enhancing their understanding and skills in this domain.
- Guide to NetPractice
- NetPractice
- The Internet’s Layered Network Architecture
- IPv4 Addresses, Routing and Subnet Masks
- Networking Essentials - A CompTIA Network+ N10-008 Jeffrey S. Beasley Piyasat Nilkaew
- manjunath5496 - Networking-Books
Networking is a foundational concept in the realm of computer science and technology. It revolves around the interconnection of devices and systems to share resources, information, and communication. In today's interconnected world, networking is crucial in enabling communication between computers, smartphones, servers, and other devices, both locally and globally.
At its core, networking involves exchanging data between devices over a communication medium, such as cables, wireless signals, or optical fibers. This exchange of data enables users to access websites, send emails, stream videos, transfer files, and perform countless other tasks that rely on network connectivity.
- LiveOverflow - Computer Networking (Deepdive) 📹
- Fireship - Computer Networking in 100 Seconds 📹
- NetworkChuck - What is a Network? 📹
- Crash Course - Computer Networks 📹
- How Computers Communicate in a Network | Google IT Support Certificate 📹
- IT Dose - Introduction to Networks and CCNA[AR] 📹
- Devices: Networking involves various types of devices, including computers, routers, switches, modems, access points, and servers. These devices serve different functions within a network and are interconnected to facilitate communication and data exchange.
- Protocols: Protocols are rules and conventions that govern communication between devices on a network. They define how data is formatted, transmitted, received, and interpreted by devices. Common network protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, DNS, and SMTP
- Topologies: Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices and connections within a network. Common network topologies include bus, star, ring, and mesh configurations, each with its advantages and limitations in terms of scalability, fault tolerance, and performance.
- Addressing: Network addressing involves assigning unique identifiers to devices on a network to facilitate communication. IP addresses are used to identify devices within a network, while MAC addresses are used to identify devices at the data link layer.
- Security: Network security is a critical aspect of networking that involves protecting data, devices, and infrastructure from unauthorized access, attacks, and threats. Security measures include encryption, authentication, firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and security protocols.
Networking encompasses a wide range of concepts and principles that form the foundation of communication and data exchange in computer networks.
The OSI model is a conceptual framework that standardizes the functions of a telecommunication or computing system into seven abstraction layers. It was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in the late 1970s.
The OSI model serves as a guideline for designing and understanding network communication systems. By breaking down network communication into layers, it allows for modular design, interoperability, and easier troubleshooting.
Layers:
- Physical Layer (Layer 1): The physical layer deals with the transmission of raw data bits over a physical medium, such as copper cables, fiber optics, or wireless transmission.
- Data Link Layer (Layer 2): The data link layer provides error detection and correction mechanisms, as well as controls access to the physical medium. It is divided into two sublayers: the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer and the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer.
- Network Layer (Layer 3): The network layer handles the routing and forwarding of data packets between different networks. It provides logical addressing, packet switching, and routing functions. The most common protocol at this layer is the Internet Protocol (IP). Routers operate at this layer.
- Transport Layer (Layer 4): The transport layer is responsible for end-to-end communication between devices across the network. It ensures reliable and orderly delivery of data packets. The two primary protocols at this layer are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
- Session Layer (Layer 5): The session layer establishes, maintains, and terminates communication sessions between applications. It handles synchronization, checkpointing, and recovery of data exchange. Examples of session layer protocols include NetBIOS and PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol).
- Presentation Layer (Layer 6): The presentation layer deals with the syntax and semantics of data exchanged between applications. It translates data into a format that the application layer can understand. This layer handles tasks such as data compression, encryption, and formatting.
- Application Layer (Layer 7): The application layer provides network services directly to end-users and applications. It includes protocols for various applications such as HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and DNS (Domain Name System).
- Cloudflare - What is the OSI model
- Geeksforgeeks - Layers of OSI model
- What is OSI Model | Real World Examples 📹
- OSI Layers[AR] 📹
The TCP/IP model is a simplified version of the OSI model, commonly used in modern networking environments, especially on the internet. It consists of four layers: Network Interface, Internet, Transport, and Application. The TCP/IP model defines the protocols and services used for communication between devices on the internet, including IP addressing, routing, TCP, UDP, and application-layer protocols such as HTTP, FTP, and DNS.
- Analog vs. Digital: Data transmission can occur in analog or digital formats. Analog transmission involves continuous signals that vary in amplitude or frequency, while digital transmission involves discrete signals represented as binary digits (0s and 1s). Digital transmission is more resilient to noise and distortion, making it the preferred method for most modern communication systems.
- Bandwidth: Bandwidth refers to the maximum data transfer rate of a network or communication channel. It determines the amount of data that can be transmitted per unit of time and is measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per second (kbps), or megabits per second (Mbps). Higher bandwidth allows for faster data transmission and better network performance.
- Latency: Latency, also known as delay, is the time it takes for data to travel from its source to its destination over a network. Latency can be affected by various factors, including the distance between devices, the speed of light, network congestion, and processing time. Low latency is essential for real-time applications such as voice and video communication, online gaming, and financial transactions.
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Routers: Routers are network devices that forward data packets between different computer networks. They operate at the network layer of the OSI model and use routing tables and protocols to determine the best path for packet delivery. Routers play a crucial role in connecting devices across multiple networks and enabling communication between them.
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Switches: Switches are network devices that connect multiple devices within a local area network (LAN). They operate at the data link layer of the OSI model and use MAC addresses to forward data packets to the intended recipient. Switches improve network efficiency and performance by reducing collisions and segmenting network traffic.
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Hubs: Hubs are network devices that connect multiple devices within a LAN. Unlike switches, hubs operate at the physical layer of the OSI model and broadcast data packets to all connected devices. This broadcasting can lead to network congestion and reduced performance, making hubs less common in modern network environments.
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Modems: Modems (modulator-demodulator) are devices that modulate digital data signals into analog signals for transmission over analog communication channels, such as telephone lines, and demodulate analog signals back into digital data signals for reception. Modems are commonly used to connect devices to the internet via dial-up, DSL, cable, or fiber-optic connections.
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Geeksforgeeks - Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and Brouter)
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TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): TCP is a reliable, connection-oriented protocol used for transmitting data packets over networks. It provides mechanisms for establishing and terminating connections, acknowledging received data packets, retransmitting lost packets, and controlling data flow to ensure reliable and orderly communication between devices.
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IP (Internet Protocol): IP is a network layer protocol responsible for addressing and routing data packets across interconnected networks. It assigns unique IP addresses to devices and uses routing algorithms to determine the best path for packet delivery. IP is the foundation of the internet and is used to transmit data between devices worldwide.
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UDP (User Datagram Protocol): UDP is a connectionless, unreliable protocol used for transmitting data packets over networks. Unlike TCP, UDP does not establish a connection before sending data and does not provide error checking, sequencing, or flow control mechanisms. UDP is commonly used for real-time applications such as voice and video streaming, where low latency and high throughput are more important than reliability.
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ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): ICMP is a network layer protocol used for sending control messages and error reporting between devices on IP networks. It includes messages such as echo request/reply (ping), destination unreachable, time exceeded, and parameter problem. ICMP plays a critical role in diagnosing network connectivity issues, troubleshooting routing problems, and monitoring network performance.
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ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): ARP is a protocol used for mapping IP addresses to MAC addresses on a local network. It enables devices to determine the hardware address of a target device for communication. ARP is essential for transmitting data between devices within the same subnet and is commonly used in Ethernet networks.
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Bus Topology: In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single communication line (bus). Data is transmitted along the bus, and each device receives the data but only processes data addressed to it.
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Star Topology: In a star topology, each device is connected to a central hub or switch. Data is transmitted from one device to the hub/switch and then forwarded to the intended recipient.
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Ring Topology: In a ring topology, devices are connected in a closed-loop configuration. Data circulates around the ring, with each device receiving and forwarding data packets to the next device until they reach their destination.
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Mesh Topology: In a mesh topology, devices are interconnected with multiple redundant paths. This redundancy provides fault tolerance and ensures reliable communication, but it can be costly and complex to implement.
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Network Topologies (Star, Bus, Ring, Mesh, Ad hoc, Infrastructure, & Wireless Mesh Topology)📹
Network communication refers to the exchange of data and information between devices within a network. It encompasses various technologies and protocols that enable devices to connect, communicate, and share resources over a network infrastructure.
- Local Area Networks (LANs): LANs are networks that connect devices within a limited geographic area, such as a home, office, or campus. They typically use Ethernet or Wi-Fi technology and are often used for sharing resources such as files, printers, and internet access.
- Wide Area Networks (WANs): WANs connect devices over a wide geographic area, often spanning multiple cities or countries. Examples include the internet, private leased lines, and virtual private networks (VPNs).
- Wireless Networking: Wireless technologies enable communication between devices without the need for physical cables. Common wireless standards include Wi-Fi (802.11), Bluetooth, and cellular networks (e.g., 3G, 4G, 5G).
- Ethernet Technologies: Ethernet is a widely used networking technology that defines standards for data transmission over wired LANs. Variants include Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, and 10 Gigabit Ethernet.
- Data Link Layer: The data link layer is responsible for transferring data between adjacent network nodes. It includes functions such as framing, addressing (MAC addresses), error detection, and flow control.
- Network Layer: The network layer handles routing and forwarding of data packets across interconnected networks. It includes protocols such as IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol), and ARP (Address Resolution Protocol).
Casting refers to the method by which data packets are sent and received within a network. There are three main types of casting: unicast, multicast, and broadcast.
- Unicast: Unicast transmission involves sending data packets from one sender to one specific receiver. Each packet in a unicast transmission is addressed to a single destination IP address. Unicast communication is used for one-to-one communication scenarios, such as client-server communication and peer-to-peer file transfer.
- Multicast: Multicast transmission involves sending data packets from one sender to multiple recipients who are interested in receiving the data. Each packet in a multicast transmission is addressed to a specific multicast group, identified by a multicast IP address. Multicast communication is used for one-to-many or many-to-many communication scenarios, such as streaming media, video conferencing, and online gaming.
- Broadcast: Broadcast transmission involves sending data packets from one sender to all devices within a network segment. Each packet in a broadcast transmission is addressed to a special broadcast address, such as 255.255.255.255 for IPv4 or ff02::1 for IPv6. Broadcast communication is used for one-to-all communication scenarios, such as network discovery, address resolution, and service advertisement.
Transmission modes refer to the direction of data transmission between devices in a network. There are three main transmission modes: simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex.
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Simplex: In simplex mode, data flows in only one direction, from the sender to the receiver. There is no feedback mechanism or capability for the receiver to send data back to the sender. Simplex communication is often used in scenarios where data is transmitted from a central device to peripheral devices, such as in television broadcasting, where the TV station sends signals to viewers.
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Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, data can flow in both directions, but not simultaneously. Devices can either send or receive data at any given time, but not both simultaneously. Half-duplex communication allows for bidirectional communication, but only one device can transmit at a time. Walkie-talkies and CB radios are examples of half-duplex communication, where users take turns speaking and listening.
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Full-Duplex: In full-duplex mode, data can flow in both directions simultaneously. Devices can send and receive data simultaneously, allowing for faster and more efficient communication. Full-duplex communication is commonly used in modern networking technologies, such as Ethernet and Wi-Fi, where devices can both transmit and receive data at the same time without interference.
IP (Internet Protocol) addressing is a fundamental concept in networking that enables devices to communicate with each other over a network. An IP address is a numerical label assigned to each device participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. IP addresses are typically represented in dotted-decimal notation, such as 192.168.1.1.
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) addresses are 32-bit numerical addresses represented in four octets separated by periods (e.g., 192.168.1.1). IPv4 addresses are divided into different classes (A, B, C, D, and E) and types (unicast, multicast, and broadcast).
IP addresses were divided into classes as a way to manage the allocation of IP addresses efficiently. These classes, known as Class A, Class B, and Class C, were based on the leading bits of the IP address. However, with the introduction of Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR), the concept of IP address classes has become less relevant. CIDR allows for more flexible allocation of IP addresses without strict adherence to class boundaries. Nonetheless, understanding the historical concept of IP address classes can still be useful for understanding networking fundamentals.
| Reserved Address Range | Description |
|---|---|
| 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 | Loopback addresses, typically used for testing network communication internally. |
| 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 | Private IP addresses, commonly used within private networks behind routers. |
| 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 | Private IP addresses, commonly used within private networks behind routers. |
| 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 | Private IP addresses, commonly used within private networks behind routers. |
| 169.254.0.0 to 169.254.255.255 | Link-local addresses, used for communication within a single subnet. |
| 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 | Multicast addresses, used for one-to-many communication. |
| 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254 | Reserved for future use or unassigned. |
Subnetting is the process of dividing a single, large network into multiple smaller subnetworks (subnets) to improve network performance, manageability, and security. Subnetting allows organizations to efficiently allocate IP addresses and reduce network congestion.
Practical Networking - Subnetting Mastery📹
NetworkChuck - You Suck at Subnetting 📹
Network Academy - IP Subnetting
- Subnet Masks: A subnet mask is a 32-bit binary number used to divide an IP address into network and host portions. It consists of a series of contiguous 1s followed by a series of contiguous 0s. For example, a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 (or /24 in CIDR notation) means that the first 24 bits of the IP address represent the network portion, and the remaining 8 bits represent the host portion.
- CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing): CIDR is a method used to allocate and specify IP addresses and their associated subnet masks more flexibly than traditional IP classes. CIDR notation represents an IP address followed by a forward slash and the number of significant bits in the subnet mask. For example, 192.168.1.0/24 represents a subnet with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0.
- Address Space Allocation: Subnetting allows organizations to efficiently allocate IP address space by dividing it into smaller, manageable chunks. Each subnet can have its own range of IP addresses, allowing for more granular control over network resources and security policies.
- Routing and Network Segmentation: Subnetting facilitates routing and network segmentation by organizing devices into logical groups based on their IP addresses. This improves network performance by reducing broadcast traffic and optimizing routing efficiency.
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) addresses are the next generation of IP addresses designed to overcome the limitations of IPv4. IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long and are represented in hexadecimal notation, such as 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334. IPv6 provides a significantly larger address space to accommodate the growing number of devices connected to the Internet.
- IP Routing: IP routing involves forwarding data packets between networks based on destination IP addresses. Routing protocols such as RIP (Routing Information Protocol), OSPF (Open Shortest Path First), and BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) are used to determine the best path for packet delivery.
- ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): ICMP is a network layer protocol used for sending control messages and error reporting between devices on IP networks. Common ICMP messages include ping (echo request/reply) and traceroute (packet path tracing).
- ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): ARP is a protocol used for mapping IP addresses to MAC addresses on a local network. It enables devices to determine the hardware address of a target device for communication.
- Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a reliable, connection-oriented protocol used for transmitting data packets over networks. It provides features such as error detection, flow control, congestion control, and reliable data delivery through mechanisms like acknowledgment, sequencing, and retransmission.
- User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a connectionless, unreliable protocol used for transmitting data packets over networks. It offers low-overhead communication without the reliability mechanisms of TCP, making it suitable for real-time applications such as VoIP (Voice over IP) and online gaming.
- Port Numbers: Port numbers are used to identify specific communication endpoints within a device. They allow multiple network services to run concurrently on a single device. Well-known port numbers (0-1023) are reserved for standard services, while registered port numbers (1024-49151) and dynamic/private port numbers (49152-65535) are used for other applications.
- TLS (Transport Layer Security): TLS is a cryptographic protocol used to secure communication over a computer network. It provides encryption, data integrity, and authentication for data transmissions between clients and servers. TLS ensures that data exchanged between parties remains confidential and tamper-proof, protecting against eavesdropping, data manipulation, and impersonation attacks. and is widely used to secure HTTP, although it can be used with any protocol. TLS is often used in combination with HTTPS, which is HTTP over TLS.
HTTP is a protocol used for transferring hypertext documents, such as web pages, over the internet. It operates on top of TCP and uses port 80 by default. HTTP defines methods for requesting and transmitting data between clients (web browsers) and servers.
- Everything you need to know about HTTP
- What is HTTP?
- An overview of HTTP
- HTTP/3 From A To Z: Core Concepts
- HTTP/1 to HTTP/2 to HTTP/3
- HTTP Crash Course & Exploration
- ByteByteGo - SSL, TLS, HTTPS Explained
FTP is a protocol used for transferring files between a client and a server over a network. It supports various operations such as file upload, download, renaming, and deletion. FTP operates on TCP and uses port 21 for control connections and port 20 for data connections.
DNS is a distributed naming system that translates domain names into IP addresses and vice versa. It enables users to access websites using human-readable domain names instead of numerical IP addresses. DNS operates on both UDP (for queries) and TCP (for zone transfers).
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- How DNS works (comic)
- DNS and How does it Work?
- DNS Records
- Complete DNS mini-series
- DNS in One Picture
- DNS Explained
- What is a Domain Name?: A domain name is a unique, easy-to-remember address used to access websites, such as ‘google.com’, and ‘facebook.com’. Users can connect to websites using domain names thanks to the Domain Name System (DNS).
- Beginner's Guide: What is a Domain Name and How Does it Work?
SMTP is a protocol used for sending email messages between mail servers. It defines how email messages are transmitted and delivered over the internet. SMTP operates on TCP and uses port 25 by default.
SSH is a cryptographic network protocol used for secure remote access to networked devices. It provides encrypted communication and authentication mechanisms for secure login sessions. SSH operates on TCP and uses port 22 by default.
- Telnet: Telnet is a protocol used for remote terminal emulation over a network. It allows users to access and manage devices remotely using a command-line interface. Telnet operates on TCP and uses port 23 by default.
- Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP): DHCP is a protocol used for dynamically assigning IP addresses to network devices. It simplifies network configuration by automatically allocating IP addresses, subnet masks, default gateways, and other parameters to devices when they connect to a network.
- Network Time Protocol (NTP): NTP is a protocol used for synchronizing the clocks of networked devices. It ensures accurate timekeeping across distributed systems by synchronizing devices with a reference time source.
- IT Dos - LAN, WAN, PAN, CAN, MAN, SAN[AR] 📹
- PowerCert Animated Videos - Network Types: LAN, WAN, PAN, CAN, MAN, SAN, WLAN
- A PAN is the smallest type of network, typically covering a very small area such as a person's workspace or personal devices.
- It enables communication between personal devices like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearable technology.
- Common PAN technologies include Bluetooth, Zigbee, and Near Field Communication (NFC).
- A LAN connects devices within a limited geographic area such as a home, office, or campus.
- It enables resource sharing, such as file servers, printers, and internet access, among connected devices.
- LAN technologies include Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Token Ring.
- A MAN spans a larger geographic area than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, typically covering a city or metropolitan area.
- It connects multiple LANs and enables high-speed data transmission between them.
- MANs are often used by businesses, educational institutions, and government agencies for interconnecting local networks.
- A WAN covers a broad geographic area, such as across cities, countries, or continents.
- It connects multiple LANs, MANs, or other networks, enabling long-distance communication and data exchange.
- WAN technologies include leased lines, MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching), and the internet.
- A CAN is a type of network that interconnects multiple buildings within a university campus, corporate campus, or similar environment.
- It provides high-speed communication between different departments, offices, or facilities within the campus.
- CANs often use fiber-optic cables or wireless technologies for connectivity.
- A SAN is a specialized network architecture designed to provide high-speed access to storage resources, such as disk arrays and tape libraries.
- It allows multiple servers to access shared storage devices over a dedicated network, improving storage efficiency and performance.
- SANs typically use Fibre Channel or iSCSI (Internet Small Computer System Interface) protocols.
The Internet is the wider network that allows computer networks around the world run by companies, governments, universities, and other organizations to talk to one another. The result is a mass of cables, computers, data centers, routers, servers, repeaters, satellites, and wifi towers that allow digital information to travel around the world.
The Internet is a global network of computers connected which communicate through a standardized set of protocols each computer connected to the Internet must have a unique address. Internet addresses are in the form nnn.nnn.nnn.nnn where nnn must be a number from 0-255 this address is known as an IP address
- How does the Internet work?
- How Does The Internet Work? - BBC Click
- How does the INTERNET work? | ICT #2
- How does the Internet Work?
- The Internet Explained
- How Does the Internet Work?
- Introduction to Internet
- How does the Internet work?
- How the Internet Works in 5 Minutes
- How does the internet work? (Full Course)
Packets, Routing, and Reliability: Information transfer on the internet from one computer to another does not need to follow a fixed path; in fact, it may change paths during the transfer. This information transfer is done in the form of packets and these packets may follow different routes depending upon certain factors.
1. World Wide Web (WWW): The World Wide Web is about communication between web clients and web servers. Clients are often browsers (Chrome, Edge, Safari), but they can be any type of program or device. Servers are most often computers in the cloud.
- The World Wide Web, often referred to as the Web, is an information space where documents and resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) and accessed via the Internet. It is built on top of the Internet and allows users to navigate between interconnected webpages using hyperlinks.
- The Web relies on various protocols, such as HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and HTTPS (HTTP Secure), for communication between web clients (browsers) and servers. HTTP is used for transferring hypertext documents, while HTTPS provides secure communication via encryption using SSL/TLS protocols.
- Web technologies, such as HTML (Hypertext Markup Language), CSS (Cascading Style Sheets), and JavaScript, are used to create and design webpages, enabling rich and interactive user experiences.
2. Email:
- Email, short for electronic mail, is a method of exchanging digital messages between users over the Internet. It is one of the oldest and most widely used Internet technologies, offering asynchronous communication for sending and receiving messages.
- Email operates on the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for sending messages from the sender's email client to the recipient's email server. Messages are then retrieved by the recipient using email protocols such as POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) or IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol).
- Email addresses follow a specific format, typically consisting of a username, "@" symbol, and domain name (e.g., username@example.com). Email messages can include text, attachments, and multimedia content.
3. Instant Messaging:
- Instant messaging (IM) is a form of real-time communication that enables users to exchange text messages, multimedia files, and other content instantly over the Internet. IM applications provide a platform for synchronous communication between individuals or groups.
- IM services typically support features such as presence indication (showing whether a user is online, offline, or busy), emoticons, file sharing, and voice/video calling. Examples of popular IM platforms include WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, and Slack.
- IM protocols, such as XMPP (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol) and proprietary protocols like WhatsApp's protocol, govern how messages are transmitted and exchanged between clients and servers.
4. Streaming Media:
- Streaming media refers to the delivery of multimedia content, such as audio and video, over the Internet in real-time or on-demand. It allows users to consume content without downloading the entire file beforehand, enabling instant playback.
- Streaming services use protocols like HTTP Live Streaming (HLS), MPEG-DASH (Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP), and RTMP (Real-Time Messaging Protocol) to deliver audio and video content to users' devices. These protocols support adaptive bitrate streaming, allowing the quality of the media stream to adjust based on the user's network conditions.
- Popular streaming platforms include Netflix, YouTube, Spotify, and Twitch, offering a wide range of content such as movies, TV shows, music, and live broadcasts.
5. Cloud Computing:
- Cloud computing is a model for delivering computing services over the Internet on a pay-as-you-go basis. It provides access to a shared pool of resources, including computing power, storage, and applications, that can be rapidly provisioned and scaled as needed.
- Cloud computing services are categorized into three main models: Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS). Examples of cloud service providers include Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud Platform (GCP).
- Cloud computing offers numerous benefits, including cost savings, scalability, flexibility, and resilience. It has revolutionized the way organizations deploy and manage IT infrastructure, enabling innovation, agility, and digital transformation.
A web browser is a software application that enables a user to access and display web pages or other online content through its graphical user interface.
- What is a browser?
- How does web browsers work?
- How the Web works
- How Browsers Work: Behind the scenes of modern web browsers - HTML5 Rocks
- How Browsers Work
- Role of Rendering Engine in Browsers
- Populating the Page: How Browsers Work
Headless Browsers: Headless browsers is a web browsers without a graphical user interface that can be controlled from a command line interface programmatically for web page automation (e.g., functional testing, scraping, unit testing, etc.). Think of headless browsers as a browser that you can run programmatically from the command line that can retrieve and traverse web page code.
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Cryptography is the practice of securing communication and data by converting it into a form that is unreadable without the proper decryption key. It involves techniques such as encryption, decryption, hashing, and digital signatures to protect data confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity.
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Encryption algorithms, such as AES (Advanced Encryption Standard), RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman), and ECC (Elliptic Curve Cryptography), are used to encrypt plaintext data into ciphertext, rendering it unintelligible to unauthorized users.
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Hashing algorithms, such as SHA-256 (Secure Hash Algorithm 256-bit), generate fixed-size hash values from input data, providing data integrity and authenticity verification. Hash functions are commonly used to store passwords securely and verify file integrity.
- Public-key cryptography - Wikipedia
- Public Key Cryptography - Computerphile
- Public Key Cryptography: RSA Encryption Algorithm
- Encoding, Encryption and Hashing — Whats the Difference?
- Hashing Algorithms and Security - Computerphile
- Top Hashing Algorithms In Cryptography | MD5 and SHA 256
- Algorithms Expalined | Simplilearn
- SHA: Secure Hashing Algorithm - Computerphile
- Security protocols, such as SSL/TLS and IPsec, provide secure communication over the internet by encrypting data transmissions and verifying the authenticity of communication endpoints.
- SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) and its successor, TLS (Transport Layer Security), are cryptographic protocols used to secure communication between clients (such as web browsers) and servers. They encrypt data transmissions and provide authentication using digital certificates.
- IPsec (Internet Protocol Security) is a suite of protocols used to secure IP communications at the network layer. It provides encryption, authentication, and integrity protection for IP packets, ensuring secure transmission between network devices.
OWASP or Open Web Application Security Project is an online community that produces freely-available articles, methodologies, documentation, tools, and technologies in the field of web application security.
- Wikipedia - OWASP
- OWASP Web Application Security Testing Checklist
- OWASP Top 10 Security Risks
- OWASP Cheatsheets
